The Language of Drawings: A New Finding in Psychodynamic Work
By asking patients to bisect lines, copy drawings and mark different times of day on a clock face, they connected the recognised phenomenon of unilateral neglect with specific disruptions in processing caused by unilateral parietal lesions. Throughout the s and s, a group of neuropsychologists argued that cases classed as agnosias did not reflect a specific disorder, but rather resulted from generalised brain damage and decreased cognitive functioning.
Advocates for visual agnosia as an etiologically distinct syndrome used drawings as evidence for a new theory of visual processing, modelling it as a stream that flowed from lower-level perception to stored perceptual knowledge to stored conceptual knowledge. Along with a battery of other visual tasks, drawings helped to delineate a disorder which gained widespread acceptance with the work of George Ettlinger, Glyn Humphreys and Jane Riddoch from the late s onwards. Drawing tests mobilise an arsenal of familiar objects depicted in outline from a conventional point of view, in part, as an accommodation to the perceptual difficulties of neurological patients.
Throughout these debates, neurologists recognised that deficits and lesions rarely match in a simple one-to-one correspondence because injuries are rarely limited to a single-function area of the brain; patients often suffer from a combination of difficulties following an injury. Though not an intentional continuation of these practices, it reveals how the epistemological assumptions built into supposedly basic psychomotor tasks have shaped different areas of psychology in similar ways.
Drawing seemed a reliable means to capture the mental processes of particular kinds of subject while bypassing the unruliness of subjectivity. In each of the examples above, researchers identified subjects who they believed could function as object-instruments capable of faithfully recording the desired mental phenomena. The images of mental function and dysfunction discussed above occupy a strange intermediate space.
They were not understood as professional scientific illustrations — they did not illustrate observed phenomena, but rather manifested hidden mental phenomena in visible form. Nor were they interpreted for emotional content — rather, their scientific validity depended on the exclusion of meaning, history and individual voice. Researchers in vastly different contexts elicited these drawings aiming to make an objective study of subjectivity and to access the mind through the hand. Ludmilla Jordanova, The Look of the Past: Cambridge University Press, , 4—6.
John Cerullo describes one major transition, from metaphysical to secular notions of selfhood, in The Secularization of the Soul: For changes in the professional organisation of the mind sciences, see: Kurt Danziger, Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research Cambridge: The entangled connotations of tool and instrument belong to the larger continuum of mind, body, apparatus and evidence that this paper examines.
The Language of Drawings: A New Finding in Psychodynamic Work
Knowledge in the Making: In this paper, I focus on the contrast noted by researchers between the ephemerality of speech and the fixity of drawings on paper. This presumes a more basic distinction between language and images as modes of representation and as tools of psychological investigation, but this distinction proves permeable in many cases, including those described here. For instance, historical and psychological literature on automatic writing tends to focus on the content of written messages rather than their visual form, which sometimes combined letters, symbols and images.
Cornell University Press, In Line Let Loose: Scribbling, Doodling and Automatic Drawing London: For the child study researchers and psychical investigators discussed here, the reduction of thought to particular brain regions was interesting and plausible, but not necessary to establish firm laws of human cognition. Neurologists sought to anchor cognitive functions to particular brain structures, and their case differs from the other two in this regard.
1. Child Drawings
For recent work linking psychical research and psychoanalytic transference, see Mikita Brottman, Phantoms of the Clinic: Basic Books, established the close historical relationship between psychical research and psychoanalysis. For discussion of Rorschach and projective testing, see: Naamah Akavia, Subjectivity in Motion: Object lessons from art and science New York: Psychology and Commerce in America Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Astronomy is something of an exception to this argument in that many practitioners dealt transparently with the subjective aspects of image production.
Sketching the Nebulae in the Nineteenth Century Chicago: Discussions of visual representation in science in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries include: Olschki, ; and Bernard V. For the rise of scientific photography, see Jennifer Tucker, Nature Exposed: Photography as Eyewitness in Victorian Science Baltimore: Suhrkamp, , — Nasim explores similar procedures in nebular research: Importantly, Nasim details how these procedures were rooted in philosophy of mind rather than in a rhetoric of mechanical objectivity.
See Nasim, Observing by Hand Chicago: University of Chicago Press, , —70, Zone Books, , Cabinet magazine has issued a collection of executive marginalia entitled Presidential Doodles: Teachers College Press, , 69— Visual Studies and Anthropology Brussels: Academic and Scientific Publishers, , — For the connection between these movements and concurrent interest in the art of the mentally ill, see: Appleton and Company, , However, their work also included closely described individual cases which hint at the sites and contexts of production.
Granville Stanley Hall, op. Iconic Coding of the Environment New York: Springer, , Barbara Wittmann has also written extensively on drawing as a tool in child psychology of the early twentieth century. Kidd, Freud in Oz: University of Minnesota Press, , —11; John R.
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Morss, The Biologising of Childhood: He argues that its initial negative connotations shifted with the embrace of this spontaneous, gestural aesthetic in avant garde art. Kurt Danziger, Naming the Mind: SAGE, , Princeton University Press, As with child study, they hoped to fit drawings into a classificatory scheme — in this case, a taxonomy of mental illnesses rather than developmental stages. For a review of this branch of psychological research through the s, see the four-part series by Anne Anastasi and John P.
Wittmann describes the influence of archaeology on the study of child art in op. Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Wiley details the most notable acts of the late nineteenth century in Wiley, The Thought Reader Craze: Spiritualism, Parapsychology, and American Culture Oxford: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, — Cambridge: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. This context is important for understanding the preferences of psychical researchers for particular kinds of subject believed to be less psychologically capable of deception.
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See Pettit, The Science of Deception: University of Chicago Press, , 3—7: Oxford University Press, , Proceedings of the American Society for Psychical Research , i—iv, , For the relationship between telepathy and thought transference, see Luckhurst, The Invention of Telepathy, — Oxford: Oxford University Press, See Peter Lamont, Extraordinary Beliefs: Cambridge University Press, For background on the rise of an experience-based, Baconian empiricism in the rhetoric of early nineteenth-century American religious movements, see Catherine L.
Albanese, A Republic of Mind and Spirit: Yale University Press, , 10— Stage performers frequently invoked the ideals of impartial scientific inquiry, but the tactics they employed sometimes diverged from those of accepted scientific method, or stopped short to preserve ambiguity about whether their skills were natural or supernatural.
For examples from the British context, see Wiley, op. Rutgers University Press, , — University of Chicago Press, , 66—7. The problem of nervous strain on mediums was recognised by practitioners of spiritualism and mesmerism and by physicians, many of whom regarded derangement of the nervous system as a probable explanation for psychical phenomena.
A.H. Brafman explores the secret language of drawings
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