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In , this scholarship was divided into "scholarship for history" and "scholarship for monograph".

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List of laureates Henry Thierry, Anthologie lorraine Robert Parisot, Histoire de Lorraine Gabriel Gobron, Contes du Rupt-de-Mad Her father was a member of the religious Sillon movement and an anarchist sympathiser, her mother a child of a Carlist revolutionary. Her childhood in Toulouse was marked by the physical decay of her father, due to the gas he had been exposed to in the trenches during the war in When she was at the age of 16, the Spanish Civil War broke out. Three years later, she witnessed the arrival of the Republicans in exile. Between the age of 20 and 25, she endured the privations of the time.

In a railway station in Paris, the Liberation, the end of the war, met her in the form of freed Jews returning from the camps. Later, she would express her feelings in this period of her life with the meaningful title "Chienne de Jeunesse". Such a childhood, together with a hypersensitive personality, made her look at the worl After the great success of his novel La Jument verte , translated into English as The Green Mare, he concentrated mostly on writing and published children's stories, novels, and collections of stories.

In he also started writing movie scripts. This is a list of works by Studio Ghibli. Works Significant achievements The highest-grossing film of in Japan: Kiki's Delivery Service The highest-grossing film of in Japan: Only Yesterday The highest-grossing film of in Japan: Porco Rosso The highest-grossing film of in Japan: Whisper of the Heart The highest-grossing film of in Japan: The Cat Returns The highest-grossing film of in Japan: Ponyo[1] The highest-grossing film of in Japan: Pom Poko The first Miyazaki feature to use computer graphics, and the first Studio Ghibli film to use digital coloring; the first animated feature in Japan's history to gross more than 10 billion yen at the box office and the first animated film ever to win a National Academy Award Kodansha USA licensed the manga and released the first volume on February 24, She intervenes against the warring nations by using her succubus and incubus familiars to manipulate the opposing factions, as well as large-scale illusions, all for the sake of helping the people and maintaining peace.

As a result, she has gained the appreciation of several villagers and the hostility of the Church, which considers her a heretic. Yet Maria is still a virgin and her own familiars tease her about it. As news of her actions spreads, Archangel Michael focuses on Maria and rejects her interference in hum Her thesis is entitled Rabelais et les traditions populaires en Acadie. In she was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was promoted to Companion in He was the magazine's artistic director and drew its first 60 covers.

This article is a general introduction to French literature. For detailed information on French literature in specific historic periods, see the separate historical articles in the template to the right. The Prix Yacowlef is a Listed flat horse race in France open to two-year-old thoroughbreds. It is run at Chantilly Racecourse over a distance of 1, metres about 5 furlongs , and it is scheduled to take place each year in November.

The event was originally run at Deauville Racecourse and restricted to previously unraced horses. For a period its distance was 1, metres, and it was extended to 1, metres in The Prix Yacowlef was formerly held in early August. It was switched to July and reverted to 1, metres in From the race moved to its current date and venue. Records since Leading jockey 7 wins: The Prix d'Arenberg is a Group 3 flat horse race in France open to two-year-old thoroughbreds.

History The event was established in , and it was originally called the Prix des Coteaux. It was initially contested over 1, metres at Longchamp. It was abandoned throughout World War I, with no running from to It was shortened to 1, metres in The event was transferred to Chantilly in , and it returned to Longchamp in It was extended to 1, metres in , and from this point its venue frequently changed. For brief spells it was held at Maisons-Laffitt Emmanuelle Houdart born in Switzerland is a Swiss artist and illustrator.

Since she has been working as a painter and illustrator, and recently also as a costume and textile designer. Her illustrations were turned into fabrics and costumes for the "Barnhominum" exhibition at the Salon du livre et de la presse jeunesse, Montreuil, Seuil, Que fais-tu Fantine? Seuil, Monstres malades. Thierry Magnier, Les Voyages merveilleux de Lilou Artur Ashotovich Danielian Russian: He is the World Junior silver medalist and Russian junior national bronze medalist. Personal life Danielian was born on 17 December in Volgograd, Russia.

Marina Selitskaia and Elena Buianova became his coaches. In February , he won the bronze medal at the Russian Junior Championships. In March, Danielian competed at the World Junior Championships in Sofia, Bulgaria; he won the silver medal, behind teammate Alexey Erokhov, after placing 8th in the short program and second in the free skate. After she registered in a model agency, Just Jaeckin liked her photo, and she got a part in the film Emmanuelle starring Sylvia Kristel, in which she played a lollipop-sucking teenager who masturbates over a picture of Paul Newman.

Then she got some more film roles, but she also continued to study acting. La manipulation directed by Marius Theodor Barna Only you directed by Laetitia Masson En face directed by Mathias Ledoux The festival was first held in and was opened to international works of animation in Ivo Livi, better known as Yves Montand French pronunciation: He began a career in show business as a music-hall singer.

Career Montand went on to international recognition as a singer and actor, starring in numerous films. His recognizably crooner songs, especially those about Paris, became instant classics. He was one of the most famous performers at Bruno Coquatrix's famous Paris Olympia music hall, and toured with musicians includ He taught law and political science at the University of Burgundy. Une phrase, monologue, Actuaria, La Musique des morts, roman, Mercure de France: Kiki's Delivery Service Japanese: The film tells the story of a young witch, Kiki, who moves to a new town and uses her flying ability to earn a living.

According to Miyazaki, the movie portrays the gulf between independence and reliance in teenage Japanese girls. The series aired in Japan between April 2, and March 30, , following the conclusion of the previous series, Yu-Gi-Oh! The story focuses around characters playing a card game called Duel Monsters. A new method of dueling exists where motorcycle-like vehicles called D-Wheels Duel Runners in the English version are used, and the duelists engage in games called Riding Duels Turbo Duels in the English version.

Yusei Fudo, the year-old protagonist, lives in Satellite and makes it his objective to reach his rival Jack Atlas, who lives in Neo Domino. The series focuses on Rosny jeune Rosny the Younger. Wells or Olaf Stapledon in his concepts and his way of dealing with them in his novels. He was the second most important figure after Jules Verne in the history of modern French science fiction. Because his writing was not translated into English before his death, and his readers did not always understand his science fiction novels, his impact on the early evolution of the genre was limited.

Early life Brossard was born in Montreal, Quebec. In , she participated in a meeting of writers on women, after which she began to take an activist role in the Feminist movement,[7] and to write poetry with a more personal and subjective tone. Her writing includes sensual, aesthetic and feminist political content.

Brossard co-founded a feminist newspaper, L Biography Lunel was born in Aix-en-Provence, France, to a family that belonged to a Jewish subculture that had roots in the area for at least five centuries. After coming of age in the region, Lunel taught law and philosophy in Monaco.

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Lunel wrote extensively about the Jews of Provence. He also provided the libretto for Henri Sauguet's La chartreuse de Parme, premiered in He married Rachel Suzanne Messiah, a daughter of arch El Chavo Animado El Chavo: It is one of five shows based on a live-action series the other four are Batman: The Animated Series and Sabrina: With the series, Televisa began a marketing campaign which included merchandise tie-ins.

For the series' launch event, a set was built imitating the computerized background on which the animation was explained. Many elements of the original series, including most of the original stories, were included in the animated series.

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Despite the show's acquisition by Cartoon Network Latin America , it Pierre Lemieux is an economist and author born in Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada in His research interests and fields of publication straddle economic and political theory, public choice, public finance, and public policy. He lives in the U. La Ronde Round is an amusement park in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, built as the entertainment complex for Expo 67, the world fair.

Today, it is owned and operated by Six Flags. The park is under an emphyteutic lease with the City of Montreal, which expires in It is the largest amusement park in Quebec, and second largest in Canada. This is a man-made extension to the island in the space where the small Ronde Island had been. Park The park opens from mid-May to late October, with peak admissions in July. Toddlers aged 2 and under receive free admission. Pourquoi, comment, et son histoire Archived from the original on June 30, Awards started in Revolvy Brain revolvybrain.

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Member feedback about Vanessa Paradis: French atheists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Anne Sylvestre topic Anne Sylvestre French: Member feedback about Anne Sylvestre: Un pays pour moi lointain mais que mes parents pleurent Compatir et comprendre. He defines the Piednoirologie as follows: Although in her work La Memoire des Pieds-Noirs, Joelle Hureau recognizes that it is the curiosity o f what has changed in Algeria that often provokes the trip,3 she also expresses that too many Pieds-Noirs just return to the past as a sort of tourist activity: Ses participants vivent une existence de touristes et ne prennent pas pied dans la realite quotidienne du pays nouveau.

Je ne les ai jamais quittes. What Lanta adds to the concept of satisfaction in returns is the ephemeral aspect of the pleasure. Hureau notes that multiple returns are often necessary. It is not to Algeria that the Pied-Noir truly wants to arrive, rather only to a point where imagination o f Algeria can be renewed and appear continuous. In addition to the need to continually renew with Algeria, Hureau equally points out the collectivity of the return for the Pieds-Noirs which further impedes them from seeing the present Many Pieds-Noirs who are able to return often do so with obligations to the Pied-Noir community on the whole and these obligations weigh on what is revisited and how it is seen.

Dans ce domaine, les associations jouent le role important de relais. With the obligation of return on the part of others, it is nearly impossible for the Pieds- Noirs who make the physical return to truly investigate the new country of Algeria. With these motivations for return at hand, Hureau poses an even greater question. What will the Pied-Noir identity be in relation to its former Other now that the French are no longer in the superior position?

As the author has shown, the Pieds-Noirs, in fact, may be blind to their reception in Algeria. If the Pieds-Noirs were to recognize it, the shift in power may cause those who return to entirely reevaluate their identity, which is most likely why they do not see the present Algeria when they make the return to their homeland.

It is evidenced, however, by a continual slippage in view of Algeria throughout their reflections on the return voyage. In effect, Cardinal performs a mission of testing her memory and nostalgia against a so-called reality of Algeria without ever completely understanding Algeria has changed. She effectively visits a past-present Algeria that is in-between reality and fiction. As a result of this awkward voyage, 56 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.

Un poids, une masse, une rondeur, un equilibre en moi, un rire quand je pense a ce coin-la du monde: More interesting than her decision that she still loves Algeria, however, is the process by which she came to this conclusion. Even before this travelogue, in Autrement dit Cardinal began expressing this anxiety: Je pense souvent a cet abordage de ma terre.

Rather, her fear is of 57 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. As she says from the outset of her work, she is returning to renew the Algerian part of her, to confront the past, rather than the present Because she is afraid to return by herself, she asks her youngest daughter, Benedicte Ronfard, to accompany her on this trip her third child is the only one who has not been to Algeria and she adds her own travelogue at the end of Au pays entitled Au pays de Moussia.

The anxiety that Cardinal faces in making her preparations, however, is not enough to dissuade her. She is afraid to discover that her Nostalgerie although she denies she is nostalgic is not reality and that perhaps she does not need Algeria as much as she has believed.

Although she must return to remember who she is and was, Cardinal realizes that this experience will leave her even further alienated from her identity as a Pied-Noir constructed in reference to a past life. Once she returns she will lose the capacity to control Algeria in her memory as a comfort zone. She must recognize its independence from her as well as her own independence from the country. It is this potential shift in power that produces the anxiety in the author. Cardinal, however, never overtly recognizes the inability to return to the past.

Instead, she struggles with certain changes in the country and various emotions of guilt and pride. The author tries to navigate her present position in the country as a foreigner in relationship to her residual image of past dominance.

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According to psychologist Dr. Cohen in her work on self-image: Every time some portion of the old image is remembered, feelings, thoughts, and behavior are influenced to some degree. Our past has been transported to the present. Our outward expressions are guided by this old image. The return she undertakes is more than physical; it is also temporal. While it is clear that the return voyage changes her during the process, Cardinal never arrives at a point o f accepting her own independence from Algeria. In this sense, she, too, is colonized. Her outward expression her writing is guided by this old image.

In the first nostalgic moment of rewriting her past in Au pays de mes racines 59 Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. H y avait peu de pieds-noirs riches. As she draws nearer to her return trip, she expresses guilt: The author sees the country at first glance, as even better than she had remembered: Je 60 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.

Although she recognizes some sort of danger in her feelings perhaps a fear of losing this greatness again , Cardinal is immediately swept up in the joy of her memories and the familiarity she finds in Algiers: Bonjour ma mere, ma soeur, mon amie. Where Algeria is better, it is also the same. This strategy allays her fears of a second loss. At first look, nothing has changed: Much like Hureau suggests in her work, Cardinal does not immediately see the changes that have taken place.

Her residual image of Algeria dominates what she sees causing her to forego the present Algeria all together. Continuing this insistence on the fidelity of her memory, in another passage she writes: Les souvenirs affluent a une vitesse vertigineuse. Mais tout cela ne me bouleverse pas. Ce sont des souvenirs, et, curieusement, ils me mettent en gaiete. She begins to recognize the changes that have taken place, socially and architecturally, but she repeats that she is unmoved by these modifications. For example, she pretends not to care that Arabs are living in and destroying French homes, even her own: Surement pas des Arabes.

Mon indifference me surprend un p e u. The repetition of her lack of curiosity tips us off to her deception. If it were indeed the case that Cardinal had no desire to return, evidently she would not have made this trip to Algeria. Instead she is beginning to confront both the pain of the past and that o f the present. To preempt these painful feelings she refuses to revisit certain monuments o f her past. As she writes in Les mots pour le dire: Rather than claiming indifference as a motive in not returning, this time Cardinal pretends she has no more desire to return to her past.

Instead, France not explicitly comes to the understanding of the displacement of the past 62 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Qa me parait malsain. Au pays In fact, Cardinal enumerates the many reasons that the trip to the farm is not feasible: Her list is so long that she leaves her reader with little doubt of the fact that the return to the farm would simply be too painful an endeavor.

It is almost immediately after this decision that Cardinal claims she no longer wants or needs to write down every experience of this voyage and she nearly abandons her journal In spite of the changes and her evident psychological inability to complete a physical return to certain places of her past, Cardinal contents herself in believing that she has returned home and that all is well: The slippage in her expressed desire and undesire for return evidences the impossibility of going back to what she once knew.

This step is quite common among Pieds-Noirs, both in oral and physical returns. Cardinal here furthers a stereotype of Arab men and Islam without allowing room for analysis and without considering the present social and cultural context. She does not even consider that she may appear out of place in the new context of Algeria or that perhaps she is unwelcome. After expressing exaggeration, indifference and criticism, in a fourth step Cardinal begins to see that Algeria has gone on without her and she begins to accept and perhaps even embrace this independence: Yet again, in seeing their independence, Cardinal inserts herself back into the country with her final statement.

Yet, it is in this moment that she comes closest to seeing the country objectively and honestly: Qa me fascine, mais aussi? As she begins to see Algeria as continuing without her, it is at this point that she begins to admit her regrets and to see that she can never return to her place of birth: Plus les jours passent, plus je me rends compte que mon voyage prend un tour inattendu.

She has found the country and her memories intact, she is filled with satisfaction, and she is destabilized in the process o f discovering the newness of Algeria. As seen above, the author once again analyzes the present from her own perspective and never objectively observes the new country. She constantly rewrites Algeria, layering herself upon it, only investigating her relationship to the country and its present.

As she tries to find stability in her return to the free country, she practices control in her writing as a result of her residual image as colonizer. In this process, however, she comes to an end confronted with the instability between present and past in Algeria. She emphasizes the lack of nostalgia: Now that she believes she has returned, there is no need for the stabilizing effect of nostalgia.

In lieu of her previous dreaming of the beautiful Algeria of her past, she forgoes this image for its present one: Un present qui ressemble aux champs fleuris de mon enfance: She arrives at a present that resembles her past but she never manages to write the differences between memory and reality. Instead she cuts 66 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Perhaps out of obligation to maintaining the religious memory of Algeria, the author does not feel at liberty to elaborate the present state of the country for her readers.

At the end o f her trip, Cardinal does not want to leave and she does not want to stay. She is caught in-between desire and fear, idealization and realization of Algeria. She begins to remember that Algeria was both a paradise and a hell for her. Significantly once Cardinal has physically returned to Paris, she feels safe enough to admit what she could not bear to write at the moment of her arrival in Algiers: Personne ne rendra la vie aux cadavres entasses du carrefour.

Her memory now works in-between both France and Algeria and not only between the past and the present. As long as Cardinal continues to reserve parts of the past as her territory, or in other words, as long as she continues to colonize certain pieces of the Algerian soil even if only in preserved memories, the author will never be able to move beyond her identity as a Pied-Noir.

Cardinal, even up to her death, continually returned to those reserved places of her past, drawing them back to the forefront only under her complete control and authority. As we will see in the following chapters, even after this return, Cardinal continued to repeat her past in writing, thereby sustaining her control over the lost colony. Ruins of the Past in Au pays de mes racines Although Cardinal demonstrates in her works that she believes it is possible to return to Algeria, her confidence is betrayed in both her own contradictions and in her recognition of other histories and other peoples that preceded hers on the same land.

Other pasts represented by ruins recognize past rulers whose reign has ended. Just prior to her trip to Algeria, Cardinal begins this archaeology with the memory of a class trip to Timgad during her adolescence: La ville est grande. Pas seulement des soldats, mais aussi des citoyens surement, des hommes, des femmes, avec leurs enfants.

Des paysans, des boutiquiers. Une ville comme une autre faite pour que des gens y vivent. It is almost as though she were seeing the 68 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Whereas these ruins indicate a time beyond return, Cardinal still pushes towards her own ruins of the past: Les colonnades paraissent extremement hautes et longues a force de ne plus rien supporter. Au pays , emphasis added This recollection of past ruins that represented a dead conqueror is symbolic of the ruins Cardinal would uncover of her own dead civilization.

The leftover columns, once functional, are anachronistic monuments that now serve to remind of parallel pasts.

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Although this important memory is clearly paralleled with the fall of the French colonial rule, Cardinal makes no direct connection between the ruins of a past before hers and her own ruins she was about to encounter in Algeria. Instead, as we have seen, throughout her travels in Algeria, Cardinal strives to reconnect the past to the present and to forgo the prime changes in the country during her absence. Throughout Au pays de mes racines Cardinal seems to be on the brink of understanding that her past no longer exists in Algeria.

At the same time, the author feels compelled to believe that everything is still the same. While she walks through the ruins of her past in Algeria, she strains to see the ghosts of that past as real figures. The slippage of past and present also comes clear in her preparations for her return to Algeria.

Whereas in the past Cardinal was always influenced by an elsewhere, in the present she is stunned by that same outside force that marks her.

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It is clear here that Cardinal does not understand the past to be a foreign country8 and that she must be from an elsewhere in order to make a return. In spite o f markers, familiarities, or recognitions, there are only ruins of the past. The former occupants are indeed blind to the ruins of the past to which the present occupants are well attuned: Hanifa et les femmes ont brasquement cesse leur badinage, elles observent en silence Paulo et sa tante. II lui raconte que les immeubles sont blancs. Que tout est beau.

La vielle, elle ne voit pas. II ne veut pas lui faire de peine, surencherit Hannane. Zohra, la voisine du quatrieme, compatissante, approuve Paulo. Le ciel est vraiment bleu In fact, this scene doubly returns the Pied-Noir as the women turn their desire on the nephew, Paolo, hence returning the colonial gaze.

France, Algeria, Spain and California. Instead these returns are constantly displaced. Through the concept of ruins, the two authors express the destabilizing nature of returns. Each piece of the past, each monument that is revisited in the present cannot have the same meaning as it did before. These monuments are, in fact, an anachronistic repetition that changes with each time it appears.

After filming these varied pseudo-returns, the two 71 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Toumer les mots retells the returns while exploring the importance o f the intranslatability of film into book and past into present. Intranslatability also indicates the impossibility of pinning down a location in film and book as the location is always ailleurs as a result of its past. Derrida expresses this impossibility as a result of the multiplicity of identity throughout time.

The authors have a project of returning to locations of nostalgia in order to destabilize the fixedness of these imagined places: In effect, they go back to the places as part of the process of demonstrating the inability to return. Not only have the street names changed, but the entire context of 9 The author cannot return for the fear of risking his life. Derrida did return to Algeria prior to this film, however, in ,, and in Only the woman who now lives in the home is able to recognize the photo and confirm that it is the same house.

Interestingly, it is only from the present that the identification of the past is found in spite of the changing nature of the ruins. Apart from the changing context of the home, even the changed present political situation contributes to the difficulty in placing the home. The present occupants, most of their family having left Algeria because o f their intellectual activity and fear o f persecution, are unwelcoming, making Fathy and her assistant stand in the doorway rather than allowing them to enter.

As Fathy waits there she notices that many large and terrifying dogs are allowed to go in and out of the house while she and her party are clearly not welcome. Furthermore, the author notes that the occupants now speak yet another foreign language Bulgarian , distancing the present even more from the past and making the location even more inaccessible.

All of these changes produced in the present create a new context of Algeria - one that is foreign from the past and one that does not recall the past existence because the member of the past Derrida is not present to make the connection. Yet, in spite of this disjunction between present and past, shards of ruins will still be relayed to Derrida in the end who will have the choice to reassemble the artifacts in his viewing.

In the entryway to the home, there is one point where the star-like tile pattern is broken as one piece of the image had been inserted upside down. Under the photograph of these tiles in Toumer les mots is the following caption: As he expresses to Fathy, he, like the tile, is destabilized and destabilizing. His present and presence serve to disrupt the unity represented there. He, like the tile, is an anachronistic representation recalling an elsewhere that is no longer relevant: Derrida, too, wants to demonstrate the impossibility of fixing himself on the screen as he exists in multiple copies.

The one fixed on the screen perturbs an infinite pattern. It is already a ruin of what now exists. Like the inability of fixing one version of himself or of committing oneself to the screen, 74 Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Derrida can return neither to one Algeria nor to one self of the past in Algeria.

In fact, there were many Derridas and many Algerias. The tile that remains in the house is a ruin that represents the un-fixedness of the past, the antidote to nostalgia, a disruption rather than a unification of the pattern. More than being just emblematic of the author, however, this tile also comes into play in the understanding of the past and of memory. Aussi loin que je puisse imaginer. Cemauvais carrelage, apres soixante ans, reste bien la, survivant. Qui est ce carreau? Derrida The tile is emblematic of the ruins that hold different values at any given time in history.

The columns seem strangely out o f place now that they no longer support walls. Even as they survive time and appear as stable features of a location, they stand with no purpose but to recall the pasts. They are now unfixed and slipping figures whose meaning changes with time. Ruins recall an absence. These changes in perspective, context, and access serve to further the project of destabilization of return. Clearly the author can never really return to Algeria. He says, himself, that he feels a stranger to the film and thus incapable of return: Derrida is foreign to this new locale and to its representation.

As a result of these shifts in motives, presence, inside and outside, and in power, only the dizzying motion of return or turning remains. While Derrida never meant to make this return trip, he eventually experiences a sort of turning to what is now a very foreign country. This ailleurs or elsewhere an ever-shifting location is even further from the author because of the experience o f viewing his return as a documentary in which he participates but only abstractly with voice only , at least for the Algerian segment.

This visual return made upon his behalf is rendered impossible because of the changing of time and perspective. Derrida points out the only way o f seeing in this shifting perspective: The house no longer exists as it was but its image recalls meanings of the past For Derrida, the sense of ruin is even greater a supplemental displacement because he did not physically return, nor did he even direct the return. Value has been evacuated from the past as he passively viewed a return that, like a souvenir, was just a shard o f a ruin.

In fact, Derrida complains that he has never been so passive before: Comment ai- je pu me laisser surprendre a ce point, si imprudemment? The author only experienced a sliver of a ruin, in effect, a ruin of the ruin, as the smells, sounds, and texture of his former homeland are reduced into a two-dimensional viewing over which he has little control except over his access to it. As demonstrated in Toumer les mots and Au pays de mes racines, it is impossible to arrive at this elsewhere and any initiative to do so will be full of contradictions and frustrations as only ruins of the past are uncovered.

If all that remains from return, then, is the motion since the location is no longer fixed , we might question what the movement of return might provide. Et toujours mal, 78 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. This continual task o f returning to an unfixed location once again recalls Sisyphus as Camus described him: Recognizing the impossibility because of the now displaced location of the past, allows the foreigner to live with a back strong with the past, knowing the future is derived from what once was.

It is through the motion of return, as it will be displayed in the imagined and written returns of the Pieds-Noirs, that the foreigner finds strength to continue the impossible journey. Returning to Algeria through literature is a way of creating stability and o f continuing the Pied-Noir colonial identity that was always established in relationship to a symbolic elsewhere first towards France then towards Algeria. Through continual revisiting of the past, Algeria has become fixed as a paradisiacal point of reference and the location of unattainable desire.

It is the eternal absent destination for many Pieds-Noirs and its value is as an undisturbed utopian memory. As the Pieds-Noirs have shifted their point of origins from France to Algeria in their re patriation, written and imagined returns function to reinforce the motion implied in their identity. Return narratives are particularly important in articulating Pied-Noir identity because they work to reaffirm an instable position, giving a semblance of fixedness through their reiteration.

Furthermore, through the nostalgic re-elaboration of their existence in Algeria, the Pieds-Noirs are able to join a community. Nostalgia writing allows the Pieds-Noirs gain a sense of stability and continuity all while sustaining a fiction of their past.

As we have already seen that the physical return does not attenuate the nostalgia for Algeria, this chapter will explore the imagined returns oral and written for their contribution to the Pied-Noir community. In the perpetual motion of returning to the 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Although most Pieds-Noirs desire to continue this paradisiacal discourse as a part of their contribution to collective memory, some have also managed to uncover Algeria in their memories as a hell.

Because they have been perpetually enclosed in a discourse o f continuing a fictive Algeria at which they can never arrive, Algeria represents a painful and endless torture for some Pied-Noir writers. This disillusionment only sustains the cycle of return implied in Pied-Noir identity. As a result of their relationship to a mythical elsewhere, whether that be France or Algeria, the Pieds-Noirs will always pursue nostalgia back and forth across the Mediterranean and from present to past.

For the Pieds- Noirs, that unlaid ghost, or fictional element to which they continually must return, is their now absent Algeria. This phantom continually reappears in their oral and written memories as an unfixed location towards which they perpetually move. This need to bring the past into the present may take various forms or present itself in various symptoms. Often for the Pieds-Noirs, return begins as a compulsive act to verbally repeat their lost past or to repeatedly remember certain parts of their history. It then is sustained through writing and sometimes culminates in a physical return to Algeria before the cycle begins again.

Return for the Pieds-Noirs is an important aspect o f their identity as a displaced people. The act of continually returning to Algeria through oral and written accounts offers the exile a sense o f stability and reattachment to the past. Joelle Hureau in La Memoire des Pieds-Noirs explains that returning to the past is essential as a means of creating continuity and permanence. Herein lies the complication of Pied-Noir identity: While the Pieds-Noirs understand Algeria is far away, they do not accept that it has gone on without them and has a present independent of the colonizer.

This lack of recognition allows the nostalgic Pied-Noir to believe that this return is a possibility as demonstrated in Chapter One. Yet, as the Pieds-Noirs who write continually return to Algeria in their writing, they will never complete the cycle, for Algeria has become a fictional paradise through their elaboration of it. In the official letter of invitation 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Une telle comedie est indigne de notre age.

A cause de notre comportement ils se laisseraient egarer eux aussi, et Nous, pour un miserable moment de reste de vie, nous attirerions honte et deshonneur. The discourse in this letter is reminiscent of that in the height of colonialism and represents a return to the colonial structure. The author demonstrates a resistance against the present and seeks to perpetuate the history o f the Fran? Throughout the conference, Algeria was evoked by regions and 83 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner.

Class photos were arranged in binders for the Pieds-Noirs of various communities to identify their classmates. The effort to reconstruct their homeland just as it stood in their memories through various points of time prevailed as the overlying mode of the conference. The Pieds-Noirs at this particular conference earnestly expressed their anxiety that no one understands them and that no one will continue their country and history once they have passed away.

Its main objective was, as cited in the letter, a communal reinforcement through renewing memory. In an effort to reestablish communities, participants continually asked each other if they had known such and such person from such and such town. It was through a shared narrative and reinforcing dialogues each shared memory influencing others that Algeria was reconstructed and 1This remark was made on June 22, after I expressed to him my feeling that I had landed on another planet as they each broke into their local Algerian dialects.

At no point were these strategies of return recognized because o f the political discourse that surrounds the Pieds-Noirs, in spite of their voiced desire to remain apolitical. This conference, emblematic of the many such conferences that take place every year, was passed as a necessity to preserve the past. Other Pieds-Noirs have found a return to their roots through extensive genealogical research pieds-noirs. Still others find that web-based communities and message boards are the most convenient way to transmit their memories.

All of these mechanisms serve the same purpose of sharing nostalgic memories to recreate a stable sense of community in a fragmented postcolonial present. Written Returns From the outpouring of imagined returns displayed at conferences and other Pied- Noir gatherings, writing has arisen as a popular mechanism for diffusing the return for the community.

Just as it is important to the Pieds-Noirs to participate orally in the sharing o f their memories, many find that writing is the best way to recreate a sense of 3 Sim ilar events take place annually such as the Pied-Noir gathering in Uzes, France in July. Martini Because the Pieds-Noirs are both exiled from their homeland and exiled from their prior identity an interior exile , they feel the need to unite personalized nostalgic histories rather than to pursue intellectual ones.

Thus, the majority of these written returns are autobiographies that participate in the collective memory as the Pieds-Noirs reattach themselves to a lost community and by extension their homeland. In short, Pieds-Noirs believe that writing is necessary to create stability. While she fixes Algeria as a reference point, her desire to arrive there is never attenuated.

Whereas most critics, as we have seen, believe that the physical return will alleviate this 86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. From her first work in to her last work in , Cardinal wrote the return to her homeland, thus indicating that she never was able to stabilize the two countries France and Algeria in her imagination and that she would always remain in-between.

Simultaneously subjective and cosmic, this space is always coded feminine and always situated outside of power, outside of history. The necessity of returning to Algeria in writing indicates the inability to read these returns as historic accounts of the past, or even the present for that matter. In an unstable present marked by movement and turbulence, Algeria begins to appear intermittently as a static backdrop for these texts. According to Lucienne Martini: These memories are flashes amidst the confused present of Paris, Hamburg, and Montreal: The narrator continues this confusion throughout the work: Each narrator creates a certain level of stability through this mixing o f a past Algeria in a French present.

Mixing these elements through writing provides an even greater sense of permanence or conservation. This, the story of a woman who never learned to exist on her own, begins and ends intertwined with Algeria. The main character, Lola, bought a house and a parcel o f land to reconstruct a little piece o f Algeria. In the last work Cardinal would write in , thirty-six years after her first, and after several other written returns and even a return voyage to Algeria, the author is still concerned with the reconstruction of Algeria and the blending of this specific past into the present.

Typical of Nostalgerie writing, this poem evokes the tactile aspects of Algeria the sun, the odors, the tastes while exaggerating the beauty and exalting it over any other place. For the harkis, as for Jacques Derrida, Nostalgerie is defined as a desire for return to Algeria which is a slightly different interpretation than the one this dissertation pursues.

Georges and Josiane Gomez internet work on Nostalgerie. The landscape o f the past becomes heightened in the nostalgic imagination. Even for Derrida and Fathy who perform a sort of counter-retum in Toumer les mots, Nostalgerie is founded on basic elements and locations of the past and is evoked in revisiting each type genre of place the author knew: This style is seductive as it tries to enclose the reader in the recreated Algerian world, relying heavily on physical references to the heat, wind, and sea, but also to common landmarks such as in Algiers the Rue de la Poste, le Coq Hardi, le Milk Bar, and la Rue Michelet.

Most Pied-Noir authors go about the recreation of Algeria in the same manner as we have seen with Cardinal, intertwining their own stories with a unified backdrop of Algeria. Anne Lanta, in her Algerie, ma memoire returns to Algeria by creating its precise texture in words. At the beginning of her work, Lanta centers in on the water and light: Mais les ponts se sont evanouis et plus rien ne nous relie au port maintenant disparu.

La chaleur fait bouger le paysage. Both authors, in their recreation of the land, recognize the mixing of dreaming with reality. Although the two are conscious of the fact that the present reality o f Algeria is different, neither arrives at this present in her writing. It is only in the next phase of physical return that reality will intercede with memory. Unable and often unwilling to imagine a present Algeria without them, many Pieds-Noirs authors remain in this phase of written return, greatly embellishing and exaggerating Algeria with time.

This is no longer a question of returning to or revisiting the past, but of attempting to permanently exist in a recreated past. A vrai dire, 1'Algerie m'a fait du mal. Elle a ete trop belle, trop intense. Algeria struck her as it struck many Pieds-Noirs and it is a sensual presence that is incorporated in her being like a sickness that she cannot cure.

Much like nostalgia, critics such as Joelle Hureau find Nostalgerie to be intertwined with the instability o f the Pied-Noir after leaving Algeria. Although it is a term used by literary critics, historians, and Pieds-Noirs alike, for Hureau, it is more specifically literary: Although Hureau supports the idea that Algeria has become fixed through writing, she believes that the Pied-Noir stories will only remain as long as the concern to transmit their history is present.

While the nostalgic recreation of Algeria is often literary, it is also often picturesque: Constantine et les Constantinois History and above all postcolonial issues never come into question in these works; rather, images stand as testimonies to the past colonial glory and seem to represent the strengths of the past Algeria that have now been tarnished with time. This struggle against nostalgia and yet the compulsion to return to nostalgia produce contradictions in Pied-Noir texts. For example, she starts the passage saying that her repetitions have not exaggerated Algeria, and yet as she continues, she supports the idea that her past separated from her and began an existence of its own.

This is precisely the Nostalgerie process. The past has become so sacred that it no longer exists as memory but instead begins to develop and be sustained in its own 7 See also Le bateau du retour: All the while claiming that it is not nostalgia that lives in her, Cheula continues this passage with a recreation of the odors and tastes of Algeria that plague her in the present very much in the vein of Nostalgerie.

Each author seems to recognize that it is important to not write nostalgia and yet finds it is nearly impossible to avoid it as they recount today what happened as many as forty years ago. Like Cheula, Cardinal refuses her nostalgia for the past: Les Pieds-Noirs 19 While Cardinal insists there is no nostalgia for this past euphoria, this passage demonstrates her nostalgia. While her other autobiographical works make it clear that the past was also painful for her, this passage claims that her past was pure happiness. In spite of her denial, Cardinal remained nostalgic for Algeria throughout her literary career.

What she demonstrates in this passage, and in Les Pieds-Noirs in general is a faithfulness to the religious memory of Algeria. Her outright willingness to forget or at least not speak the negative aspects of her past is in contradiction to her statement that she knows no nostalgia, just pure happiness in Algeria. Benjamin Stora, in his work Transfert de memoire, points out the trend of this lost exaggeration noting that it was the war that caused the embellishment of the past, reconfirming the idea that trauma begets an inability to criticize: Secondly, she clearly expresses that the paradises expressed are not necessarily those o f all Pieds-Noirs: Because of the brusque end to the perceived paradise of the Pieds-Noirs, many prefer not to recall the trauma at the end of the colonial years and often they do not write of their departure from Algeria.

The many absences in their historical works have largely gone uncriticized, but their silences also recall a part of their history that was less than a paradise. After the war, everything about Algeria became idealized and utopian. Many Pieds-Noirs still strive to project their community as an uncommon model of unity among Arabs, Catholics, and Jews, forgetting any internal tensions that historically existed in the colony.

This dissertation does not distinguish Pied-Noir writing by periods o f time as many Pieds-Noirs still write Nostalgerie today and others have written sound histories since the time o f the war. It was dining her physical return to the country that she was no longer able to repress in writing all of the reality of Algeria as the painful memories came back to her. At that point she refers to the hellish side of her lost paradise: Ouimaisun paradis que je vais perdre bientot. And again in Amour Again, she is entrapped in a fiction of her past that prevents her from existing in the present.

This past is a prison and a hell. Rather, most feel compelled to defend their experience or to simply portray their pasts in the most positive light possible. Even at the moment that she is first able to criticize small aspects of her motherland in Au pays, Cardinal ends the text in the vein of religious conformity.

As Jean-Jacques Jordi points out in his work on Pied-Noir identity, nostalgia writing and thus the subscription to the religious memory o f Algeria, yield a large degree of communal conformity: The restrictions built into the Pied- Noir community combined with the difficulty of viewing the past in the postcolonial present make the reviewing of Algeria quite painful if not impossible. The hell is that return does not allow for a moving forward and integration into France, nor does it allow the Pied-Noir to reach the paradisiacal vision of Algeria.

As long as the Pied-Noir pushes towards Algeria, it will always slip away from them as soon as they have arrived at their nostalgic recreation which sends them back again towards France. Sisyphus, full o f nostalgia for the pleasures of earth, was condemned to perpetually toil under the burden of his nostalgia, a rock which represented his lost earth. Yet each time Sisyphus arrived at the summit of his anguish, he was sent 99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. The perpetual nature of the punishment comes in the fact that the return is dual: Sisyphus must return to the lower world in order to regain or perhaps summon the burden of his nostalgia.

Cette heure qui est comme une respiration et qui revient aussi surement que son malheur, cette heure est celle de la conscience. H est plus fort que son rocher. The need to continually return to France, for the Pieds-Noirs is as significant as their need to return to Algeria.

Yet they are tormented because they can arrive at neither destination. In other words, the Pied-Noir cannot exist without a nostalgic reference point or longing for return to Algeria as well as to France. Symbolic Elsewhere Since before the invention of their name, those who identify themselves as Pieds- Noirs created themselves in relationship to an elsewhere.

This relationship precedes both the written and physical returns that the Pieds-Noirs would undertake and it is the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. The act of returning to another place is the one commonality among the Pieds-Noirs, no matter what their national or ethnic origin. As the first European families settled in Algeria, the importance of France progressively became as a distant motherland and home to their ancestors. It loomed in the background not as a home but as an abstract notion, a symbol of greatness and the reason for their existence. Marie Cardinal points out in her work that there were objects brought and left over from France that served as daily reminders of this elsewhere to Algeria.

Au pays Not only did the Fran? France as a supplement functions as the excess of the colony; the country represents an outside force that brought meaning to Algeria through is difference. France is, thus, both implicitly included and excluded in the colonial identity. Although the colonists began to feel increasingly at home in Algeria, they were still in the service o f a country to which they belonged and from whom they derived their nationality, power, and resources economic, military, etc. Throughout colonization, France served 14 Cf.

Cardinal centers her work Les Pieds-Noirs in a crucial moment of development for her people, during the Second World War. As Cardinal writes, Algeria was France during the war years, and yet the war cut Algeria from the Metropole: Cette guerre-la nous a coupes de la Metropole. Ainsi fut acquise la preponderance numerique de la nationality Frangaise: This ambiguous position the colony held during the war, of being both cut off from France and free from France, lead to the initial schism between the colony and motherland. World War II served as the defining moment for the Pieds-Noirs as they clearly distinguished themselves both politically and socially from the French for the first time in their history.

Again in Les Pieds-Noirs Cardinal declares war crimes that Algeria did not commit, in effect comparing her country to France: Jamais vu de SS en uniforme. Jamais vu le moindre bidasse allemand avec la croix de fer autour du cou. Jamais vu Hotter le drapeau a croix gammee sur ma ville. Jamais vu les noms de mes rues ecrits en caracteres gothiques. Turning away from France and finding their own authority was a step in usurping the French-given colonial power. It was from this point of separation from France during World War II that the Pieds-Noirs began to ask for more rights, privileges and representation in France.

Some leftist philosophers such as Albert Camus and Jacques Derrida subscribed to this idea of independence. Derrida tried to stay in Algeria after but quickly understood this impossibility. The identifications of these two groups were strengthened and began to be disenfranchised as a result of their direct interaction with the colonizing land during the war. Whereas return was once thought of in terms of returning to France, it soon became a desire to return to Algeria. The upper class colonial French citizens were already accustomed to regular trips to France before the war, and the symbolic value of their motherland often implied various aspects of their heritage that were to be valued and yet often criticized at the same time.

These trips were often out of obligations to family, to maintaining a good faith relationship with the Metropole as well as they were a necessary part of maintaining identity in Algeria as the dominant class. Cardinal situates her family summers in France in this category: La France, je la connaissais. Nous rentrions pour les vendanges. Pieds-Noirs 47 Returns to France legitimized power as they renewed contacts with France. The desire to return to France, however, began to lose its hold on the younger generation of the Pieds- Noirs.

The motherland no longer held the same power for this generation as Cardinal writes: For Cardinal, France was always associated with a certain strictness of manner, whereas Algeria was freedom and unconstraint. During dreaded visits to France, usually during the summer months, Cardinal remembers desiring a return home, her return to Algeria: Pieds-Noirs 48 The distance from her country began to train her desire for return at a young age. This new desire for Algeria, begotten of distance and demonstrated through the eager looking towards the homeland rather than looking back towards the motherland, symbolizes the beginning o f the identity of the Pieds-Noirs as an independent group from both Algeria and France.

This group that is characterized by longing for their country and the inability to accept their separation from their land has found themselves figuratively trapped between two lands, looking eagerly towards the homeland and yet unable to arrive. As France through generational differences is portrayed clearly in this film. The youngest sister, Gritte, is, however, anti-French and clearly pro-Algerie libre. Although she is the only of the three sisters to actually be transplanted to France, she is also the only one who actively resisted the French system during her life in Algeria.

When independence came to Algeria, the Pieds-Noirs experienced a new form of return. Irregardless of ancestral ties, the majority of these European Algerians were French citizens. This unique blend of cultures contributed to the distance between the Pieds-Noirs and the French.

Rather, as they were lifted out of the colony, they had nowhere to turn but to France whom they had served and who was in part responsible for their situation of exile. Turning also displays the dizzying effect of movement between France and Algeria that was both related to desire and yet was physical in nature. As they turned to France, between and , this group of former colons became for the first time the Pieds-Noirs. Trauma Turning to France did not prove to be an easy solution as the Pieds-Noirs were an unwelcome symbol of failed colonial rule as well as violence and confusion produced by the OAS, ALN, etc.

Many French men had died trying to save the land for the Pieds- Noirs and for France the bitterness of these losses were quite fresh as almost a million Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. The first of these difficulties manifested itself in the physical voyage to France. In January the French government began asking transportation companies to limit the number of voyages in an attempt to stop a massive arrival of repatriated citizens.

On May 16,, however, the navigation companies went against French authorities and increased their services for the departure from Algeria. The crowded piers and long lines at the port of Algiers stand out as a prominent piece of Pied-Noir collective memory. Leaving Algeria with a scorched earth policy, many of the Pieds-Noirs have a last memory of Algeria filled with burning cars and destroyed property. One woman referred to as Madiana D. Ceux qui ne pouvaient pas emporter tous leurs bagages les detruisaient sur place. The trauma of leaving the homeland was compounded by these difficult political and physical conditions of the departure.