Mad-In-France 3 (French Edition)

The major postwar success story was Paris Soir , which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation and serious articles to build prestige. By , its circulation was over 1. In addition to its daily paper. Paris Soir sponsored a highly successful women's magazine Marie-Claire. Another magazine, Match , was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine Life. France was a rural nation, and the peasant farmer was the typical French citizen.

In his seminal book Peasants Into Frenchmen , historian Eugen Weber traced the modernization of French villages and argued that rural France went from backward and isolated to modern with a sense of national identity during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He based his findings on school records, migration patterns, military service documents and economic trends. Weber argued that until or so a sense of French nationhood was weak in the provinces. Weber then looked at how the policies of the Third Republic created a sense of French nationality in rural areas.

Weber's scholarship was widely praised, but was criticized by some who argued that a sense of Frenchness existed in the provinces before The French gloried in the national prestige brought by the great Parisian stores. Zola represented it as a symbol of the new technology that was both improving society and devouring it.

The novel describes merchandising, management techniques, marketing, and consumerism. The Grands Magasins Dufayel was a huge department store with inexpensive prices built in in the northern part of Paris, where it reached a very large new customer base in the working class. In a neighbourhood with few public spaces, it provided a consumer version of the public square. It educated workers to approach shopping as an exciting social activity, not just a routine exercise in obtaining necessities, just as the bourgeoisie did at the famous department stores in the central city.

Like the bourgeois stores, it helped transform consumption from a business transaction into a direct relationship between consumer and sought-after goods. Its advertisements promised the opportunity to participate in the newest, most fashionable consumerism at reasonable cost. The latest technology was featured, such as cinemas and exhibits of inventions like X-ray machines that could be used to fit shoes and the gramophone. Increasingly after , the stores' work force became feminized , opening up prestigious job opportunities for young women. Despite the low pay and long hours, they enjoyed the exciting complex interactions with the newest and most fashionable merchandise and upscale customers.

It was classically liberal in political orientation and opposed the monarchists and clerical elements on the one hand, and the Socialists on the other. Many members had been recruited by the Freemasons. The workers' demands for strikes threatened such stability and pushed many Radicals toward conservatism. It opposed women's suffrage for fear that women would vote for its opponents or for candidates endorsed by the Catholic Church. In foreign policy, it favored a strong League of Nations after the war, and the maintenance of peace through compulsory arbitration, controlled disarmament, economic sanctions, and perhaps an international military force.

Governing coalitions collapsed with regularity, rarely lasting more than a few months, as radicals, socialists, liberals, conservatives, republicans and monarchists all fought for control. Some historians argue that the collapses were not important because they reflected minor changes in coalitions of many parties that routinely lost and gained a few allies. Consequently, the change of governments could be seen as little more than a series of ministerial reshuffles, with many individuals carrying forward from one government to the next, often in the same posts.

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Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic — , there were battles over the status of the Catholic Church in France among the republicans, monarchists and the authoritarians such as the Napoleonists. The French clergy and bishops were closely associated with the monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families.

Republicans were based in the anti-clerical middle class, who saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat to the modern spirit of progress. The republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. In , priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and boards of charity; in , new measures were directed against the religious congregations; from to came the substitution of lay women for nuns in many hospitals; in , the Ferry school laws were passed.

Napoleon's Concordat of continued in operation, but in , the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked. Republicans feared that religious orders in control of schools—especially the Jesuits and Assumptionists —indoctrinated anti-republicanism into children. Determined to root this out, republicans insisted they needed control of the schools for France to achieve economic and militaristic progress. Republicans felt one of the primary reasons for the German victory in was their superior education system.

The early anti-Catholic laws were largely the work of republican Jules Ferry in Religious instruction in all schools was forbidden, and religious orders were forbidden to teach in them. Funds were appropriated from religious schools to build more state schools.

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Later in the century, other laws passed by Ferry's successors further weakened the Church's position in French society. Civil marriage became compulsory, divorce was introduced, and chaplains were removed from the army. In , he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner toward the State 'Nobilissima Gallorum Gens' [37]. In , he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in republican politics 'Au milieu des sollicitudes' [38].

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This attempt at improving the relationship failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the Dreyfus Affair — Catholics were for the most part anti-Dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal La Croix. This infuriated republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge.

Often they worked in alliance with Masonic lodges. The Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry — and the Combes Ministry —05 fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops. Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals in the years and , and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs in Emile Combes , when elected Prime Minister in , was determined to defeat Catholicism thoroughly.

After only a short while in office, he closed down all parochial schools in France. Then he had parliament reject authorisation of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty-four orders in France were dissolved and about 20, members immediately left France, many for Spain. Combes reacted strongly and recalled his ambassador to the Holy See. Then, in , a law was introduced that abrogated Napoleon's Concordat.

Church and State were finally separated. All Church property was confiscated. Religious personnel were no longer paid by the State. Public worship was given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches. However, in practice, masses and rituals continued to be performed. The Combes government worked with Masonic lodges to create a secret surveillance of all army officers to make sure that devout Catholics would not be promoted. Exposed as the Affaire Des Fiches , the scandal undermined support for the Combes government, and he resigned.

It also undermined morale in the army, as officers realized that hostile spies examining their private lives were more important to their careers than their own professional accomplishments. This law was heavily supported by Combes, who had been strictly enforcing the voluntary association law and the law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching.

On 10 February , the Chamber declared that "the attitude of the Vatican" had rendered the separation of Church and State inevitable and the law of the separation of church and state was passed in December The Church was badly hurt and lost half its priests. In the long run, however, it gained autonomy; ever after, the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops, thus Gallicanism was dead. Foreign-policy was based on a slow rebuilding of alliances With Russia and Britain in order to counteract the threat from Germany.

Bismarck's decision came in response to popular demand, and the Army's demand for a strong frontier. It was not necessary since France was much weaker militarily than Germany, but it forced Bismarck to orient German foreign policy to block France from having any major allies. Alsace and Lorraine were a grievance for some years, but by had largely faded away with the French realization that nostalgia was not as useful as modernization. France rebuilt its Army, emphasizing modernization in such features as new artillery, and after invested heavily in military aircraft.

Most important in restoring prestige was a strong emphasis on the growing French Empire, which brought prestige, despite large financial costs. Very few French families settled in the colonies,, and they were too poor in natural resources and trade to significantly benefit the overall economy.

Nevertheless, they were second in size only to the British Empire, provided prestige in world affairs, and gave an opportunity for Catholics under heavy attack by the Republicans in Parliament to devote their energies to spread French culture and civilization worldwide. An extremely expensive investment in building the Panama Canal was a total failure, in terms of money, many deaths by disease, and political scandal.

For example, Berlin broke its close ties with Moscow, allowing the French to enter through heavy financial investment, and a Paris-St Petersburg military alliance that proved essential and durable. Germany feuded with Britain, which encouraged London and Paris to drop of their grievances over Egypt and Africa, reaching a compromise whereby the French recognized British primacy in Egypt, while Britain recognized French primacy in Morocco. This enabled Britain and France to move closer together, finally achieving a informal military relationship after French diplomacy was largely independent of domestic affairs; economic, cultural and religious interest groups paid little attention to foreign affairs.

Permanent professional diplomats and bureaucrats had developed their own traditions of how to operate at the Quai d'Orsay where the Foreign Ministry was located , and their style changed little from generation to generation. Although France was one of the few republics in Europe, its diplomats mingled smoothly with the aristocratic representatives at the royal courts. Prime ministers and leading politicians generally paid little attention to foreign affairs, allowing a handful of senior men to control policy.

In the decades before the First World War they dominated the embassies in the 10 major countries where France had an ambassador elsewhere, they set lower-ranking ministers. In terms of foreign policy, there was general agreement about the need for high protective tariffs, which kept agricultural prices high. After the defeat by the Germans, there was a strong widespread anti-German sentiment focused on revanchism and regaining Alsace and Lorraine. The Empire was a matter of great pride, and service as administrators, soldiers and missionaries was a high status, occupation.

Although religion was a hotly contested matter and domestic politics, the Catholic Church made missionary work and church building a specialty in the colonies. Most Frenchman ignored foreign policy; its issues were a low priority in politics. French foreign policy was based on a fear of Germany—whose larger size and fast-growing economy could not be matched—combined with a revanchism that demanded the return of Alsace and Lorraine.

The most dangerous episode was the Fashoda Incident of when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco , but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall.

The Suez Canal , initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in , as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In , ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. The government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt.

France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. At Japan's request Paris sent military missions in — , in — and in — to help modernize the Japanese army. Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Foochow. The treaty ending the war put France in a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into Tonkin and Annam. Under the leadership of expansionist Jules Ferry , the Third Republic greatly expanded the French colonial empire. French foreign policy in the years leading up to the First World War was based largely on hostility to and fear of German power.

France secured an alliance with the Russian Empire in after diplomatic talks between Germany and Russia had failed to produce any working agreement. The Franco-Russian Alliance served as the cornerstone of French foreign policy until A further link with Russia was provided by vast French investments and loans before The Entente Cordiale , which functioned as an informal Anglo-French alliance, was further strengthened by the First and Second Moroccan crises of and , and by secret military and naval staff talks.

Preoccupied with internal problems, France paid little attention to foreign policy in the period between late and mid, although it did extend military service to three years from two over strong Socialist objections in The Third Republic, in line with the imperialistic ethos of the day sweeping Europe, developed a French colonial empire. French administrators, soldiers, and missionaries were dedicated to bringing French civilization to the local populations of these colonies the mission civilisatrice. Some French businessmen went overseas, but there were few permanent settlements.

The Catholic Church became deeply involved. Its missionaries were unattached men committed to staying permanently, learning local languages and customs, and converting the natives to Christianity. France successfully integrated the colonies into its economic system. By , one third of its exports went to its colonies; Paris businessmen invested heavily in agriculture, mining, and shipping.

In Indochina, new plantations were opened for rubber and rice. In Algeria, land held by rich settlers rose from 1,, hectares in to 2,, hectares in ; combined with similar operations in Morocco and Tunisia, the result was that North African agriculture became one of the most efficient in the world. Metropolitan France was a captive market, so large landowners could borrow large sums in Paris to modernize agricultural techniques with tractors and mechanized equipment. The result was a dramatic increase in the export of wheat, corn, peaches, and olive oil.

French Algeria became the fourth most important wine producer in the world. Opposition to colonial rule led to rebellions in Morocco in , Syria in , and Indochina in , all of which the colonial army quickly suppressed. Not involved in the decision-making were military leaders, arms manufacturers, the newspapers, pressure groups, party leaders, or spokesmen for French nationalism. Britain wanted to remain neutral but entered the war when the German army invaded Belgium on its way to Paris.

The French victory at the Battle of the Marne in September ensured the failure of Germany's strategy to win quickly. It became a long and very bloody war of attrition, but France emerged on the winning side.

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French intellectuals welcomed the war to avenge the humiliation of defeat and loss of territory in The economy was hurt by the German invasion of major industrial areas in the northeast. By , the war economy went into high gear, as millions of French women and colonial men replaced the civilian roles of many of the 3 million soldiers. Considerable assistance came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in This war economy would have important reverberations after the war, as it would be a first breach of liberal theories of non-interventionism.

Inflation was severe, with the franc losing over half its value against the British pound. To uplift the French national spirit, many intellectuals began to fashion patriotic propaganda. After the French army successfully defended Paris in , the conflict became one of trench warfare along the Western Front , with very high casualty rates. It became a war of attrition. Until spring of , amazing as it seems, there were almost no territorial gains or losses for either side.

Georges Clemenceau , whose ferocious energy and determination earned him the nickname le Tigre "the Tiger" , led a coalition government after that was determined to defeat Germany. Meanwhile, large swaths of northeastern France fell under the brutal control of German occupiers. A change of fortunes in the late summer and autumn of led to the defeat of Germany in World War I. The most important factors that led to the surrender of Germany were its exhaustion after four years of fighting and the arrival of large numbers of troops from the United States beginning in the summer of Peace terms were imposed on Germany by the Big Four: Clemenceau demanded the harshest terms and won most of them in the Treaty of Versailles in Germany was largely disarmed and forced to take full responsibility for the war, meaning that it was expected to pay huge war reparations.

France regained Alsace-Lorraine, and the German industrial Saar Basin , a coal and steel region, was occupied by France. From to , France was governed by two main groupings of political alliances. The Bloc was supported by business and finance and was friendly toward the army and the Church. Its main goals were revenge against Germany, economic prosperity for French business and stability in domestic affairs.

Herriot's party was in fact neither radical nor socialist, rather it represented the interests of small business and the lower middle class. It was intensely anti-clerical and resisted the Catholic Church. The Cartel was occasionally willing to form a coalition with the Socialist Party. Anti-democratic groups, such as the Communists on the left and royalists on the right, played relatively minor roles. The flow of reparations from Germany played a central role in strengthening French finances. The government began a large-scale reconstruction program to repair wartime damages, and was burdened with a very large public debt.

From to , the French economy prospered and manufacturing flourished. Foreign observers in the s noted the excesses of the French upper classes, but emphasized the rapid re-building of the regions of northeastern France that had seen warfare and occupation. They reported the improvement of financial markets, the brilliance of the post-war literature and the revival of public morale. The world economic crisis known as the Great Depression affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around In addition, there was no banking crisis.

Foreign policy was of growing concern interest to France during the inter-war period. The horrible devastation of the war, including the death of 1. France demanded that Germany assume many of the costs incurred from the war through annual reparation payments. France enthusiastically joined the League of Nations in , but felt betrayed by President Woodrow Wilson , when his promises that the United States would sign a defence treaty with France and join the League were rejected by the United States Congress.

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The main goal of French foreign policy was to preserve French power and neutralize the threat posed by Germany. When Germany fell behind in reparations payments in , France seized the industrialized Ruhr region. France tried to create a web of defensive treaties against Germany with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. There was little effort to build up the military strength or technological capabilities of these small allies, and they remained weak and divided among themselves.

In the end, the alliances proved worthless. France also constructed a powerful defensive wall in the form of a network of fortresses along its German border. It was called the Maginot Line and was trusted to compensate for the heavy manpower losses of the First World War. The main goal of foreign policy was the diplomatic response to the demands of the French army in the s and s to form alliances against the German threat, especially with Britain and with smaller countries in central Europe.

Appeasement was increasingly adopted as Germany grew stronger after , for France suffered a stagnant economy, unrest in its colonies, and bitter internal political fighting. Appeasement, says historian Martin Thomas was not a coherent diplomatic strategy or a copying of the British. In , the socialist movement split, with the majority forming the French Communist Party.

When Stalin told French Communists to collaborate with others on the left in , a popular front was made possible with an emphasis on unity against fascism. In , the Socialists and the Radicals formed a coalition, with Communist support, to complete it.

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The Popular Front's narrow victory in the elections of the spring of brought to power a government headed by the Socialists in alliance with the Radicals. The Communists supported its domestic policies, but did not take any seats in the cabinet. In two years in office, it focused on labor law changes sought by the trade unions, especially the mandatory hour work week , down from 48 hours.

All workers were given a two-week paid vacation. A collective bargaining law facilitated union growth; membership soared from 1,, to 5,, in one year, and workers' political strength was enhanced when the Communist and non-Communist unions joined together. The government nationalized the armaments industry and tried to seize control of the Bank of France in an effort to break the power of the richest families in the country.

Farmers received higher prices, and the government purchased surplus wheat, but farmers had to pay higher taxes. Wave after wave of strikes hit French industry in The higher prices for French products resulted in a decline in overseas sales, which the government tried to neutralize by devaluing the franc, a measure that led to a reduction in the value of bonds and savings accounts. The overall result was significant damage to the French economy, and a lower rate of growth. Most historians judge the Popular Front a failure, although some call it a partial success. There is general agreement that it failed to live up to the expectations of the left.

Politically, the Popular Front fell apart over Blum's refusal to intervene vigorously in the Spanish Civil War , as demanded by the Communists.

Above all, the Communists portrayed themselves as French nationalists. Young Communists dressed in costumes from the revolutionary period and the scholars glorified the Jacobins as heroic predecessors. Historians have turned their attention to the right in the interwar period, looking at various categories of conservatives and Catholic groups as well as the far right fascist movement. The favorite enemy was the left, especially as represented by socialists. The conservatives were divided on foreign affairs. The Revue des deux Mondes , with its prestigious past and sharp articles, was a major conservative organ.

Summer camps and youth groups were organized to promote conservative values in working-class families, and help them design a career path. France's republican government had long been strongly anti-clerical. The Law of Separation of Church and State in had expelled many religious orders, declared all Church buildings government property, and led to the closing of most Church schools.

In the papal encyclical Maximam Gravissimamque , many areas of dispute were tacitly settled and a bearable coexistence made possible. The Catholic Church expanded its social activities after , especially by forming youth movements. It encouraged young working women to adopt Catholic approaches to morality and to prepare for future roles as mothers at the same time as it promoted notions of spiritual equality and encouraged young women to take active, independent, and public roles in the present. Catholics on the far right supported several shrill, but small, groupings that preached doctrines similar to fascism.

It was intensely nationalistic, anti-Semitic and reactionary, calling for a return to the monarchy and domination of the state by the Catholic Church. France and Great Britain abandoned Czechoslovakia and appeased the Germans by giving in to their demands concerning the acquisition of the Sudetenland the portions of Czechoslovakia with German-speaking majorities. Intensive rearmament programs began in and were re-doubled in , but they would only bear fruit in and Historians have debated two themes regarding the sudden collapse of the French government in One emphasizes a broad cultural and political interpretation, pointing to failures, internal dissension, and a sense of malaise that ran through all French society.

As the French 1st, 7th, 9th armies and the British Expeditionary Force moved in Belgium to meet Army Group B, the German Army Group A outflanked the Allies at the Battle of Sedan of by coming through the Ardennes , a broken and heavily forested terrain that had been believed to be impassable to armoured units.

The Germans also rushed along the Somme valley toward the English Channel coast to catch the Allies in a large pocket that forced them into the disastrous Battle of Dunkirk. As a result of this brilliant German strategy, embodied in the Manstein Plan , the Allies were defeated in stunning fashion. Charles de Gaulle had made the Appeal of 18 June earlier, exhorting all French not to accept defeat and to rally to Free France and continue the fight with the Allies.

Throughout its seventy-year history, the Third Republic stumbled from crisis to crisis, from dissolved parliaments to the appointment of a mentally ill president Paul Deschanel.

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It fought bitterly through the First World War against the German Empire , and the inter-war years saw much political strife with a growing rift between the right and the left. When France was liberated in , few called for a restoration of the Third Republic, and a Constituent Assembly was established by the government of a provisional French Republic to draft a constitution for a successor, established as the Fourth Republic to that December, a parliamentary system not unlike the Third Republic.

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