Works of Joseph Priestley

The collection includes a gallery displaying many paintings by Joseph Wright of Derby; there is also a large display of Royal Crown Derby and other porcelain from Derby and the surrounding area. Further displays include archaeology, natural history, geology, military collections and world cultures.

The Art Gallery was opened in History The building mostly housed Derby Central Library today but the dividing line with newer building varies The museum can trace its start to the formation of the Derby Town and County Museum and Natural History Society on 10 February Its collections were created by donations initially from Dr Forrester who had been a President of Derby Philoso He is recognized as one of the most accomplished and influential filmmakers of all time,[1][2][3][4] and is well-known for films such as The Seventh Seal , Wild Strawberries , Persona , Cries and Whispers , and Fanny and Alexander Bergman directed over sixty films and documentaries for cinematic release and for television, most of which he also wrote.

He also directed over plays. From , he forged a powerful creative partnership with his full-time cinematographer Sven Nykvist. His work often deals with death, illness, faith, betrayal, bleakness and insanity. He was heir apparent to the British throne and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. He was heir presumptive to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha until before his marriage he renounced his right to the duchy, which then devolved to his younger brother Alfred.

During the long reign of his mother, he was largely excluded from political power, and came to personify the fashionable, leisured elite. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial public duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in and the Indian subcontinent in were popular successes, but despite public approval his reputation as a playboy prince soured h The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission PHMC is the governmental agency of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania responsible for the collection, conservation and interpretation of Pennsylvania's historic heritage.

The commission cares for historical manuscripts, public records, and objects of historic interest; museums; archeology; publications; historic sites and properties; historic preservation; geographic names; and the promotion of public interest in Pennsylvania history. As of April During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book.

Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman , in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

Until the late 20th century, Wollstonecraft's life, which encompassed several unconventional personal relationships, received more attention than her writing. After two ill-fated affairs, with Henry Fuseli and Gilbert Imlay by whom she had a daughter, Fanny Imlay , Wollstonecraft married the philosopher William Godwin, one of the forefathers of the anarchist movement. Wollstonecraft died at the age of 38, eleven days after giving He was one of the most prolific writers in England during the early twentieth century. He was known as a writer, orator, poet, sailor, satirist, man of letters, soldier and political activist.

His Catholic faith had a strong impact on his works. He was a noted disputant, with a number of long-running feuds, but also widely regarded as a humane and sympathetic man. Belloc became a naturalised British subject in , while retaining his French citizenship. His poetry encompassed comic verses for children and religious poetry. His widely sold Cautionary Tales for Children included "Jim, who ran away from his nurse, and was eaten by a lion" and "Matilda, who told lies and was burnt to death". Chesterton on a number of works. This hand-coloured engraving, probably made in the 19th century after the first excavations in the Assyrian capitals, depicts the fabled Hanging Gardens, with the Tower of Babel in the background.

Timeline and map of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the other Wonders of the Ancient World The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World as listed by Hellenic culture, described as a remarkable feat of engineering with an ascending series of tiered gardens containing a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines, resembling a large green mountain constructed of mud bricks, and said to have been built in the ancient city of Babylon, near present-day Hillah, Babil province, in Iraq.

Hydrochloric acid is a colorless inorganic chemical system with the formula HO: Hydrochloric acid has a distinctive pungent smell. It is mainly produced as a precursor to vinyl chloride for PVC. It is classified as strongly acidic and can attack the skin over a wide composition range, since the hydrogen chloride practically dissociates completely in solution. Hydrochloric acid is the simplest chlorine-based acid system containing water.

It is a solution of hydrogen chloride and water, and a variety of other chemical species, including hydronium and chloride ions. It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical, used primarily in the production of polyvinyl chloride for plastic. In households, diluted hydrochloric acid is often used as a descaling agent. In the food industry, hydrochloric acid is used as a food additive and in the production of gelatin. Hydrochloric acid is also used in leather processing.

Hydrochloric acid was discovered by the alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan around the year Notable book burnings have taken place throughout history. During the burning of the Royal Palace, a great fire ravaged the Library of Ashurbanipal where the scholar King Ashurbanipal had amassed a great number of texts and tablets from various countries.

Modern historians believe the library may have contained a considerable number of texts written on such mediums as leather scrolls, wax boards, and possibly papyri — all of them vulnerable to fire. However, the considerable number of clay cuneiform tablets became partially baked. This is a list of episodes for the U. Mikey splits with Parker after a girl he likes played by Milla Jovovich kisses Parker. Kube decides to kill them both for damaging his lunch.

Loopman, Scott Thomson as Mr. Kornstein, Mary Ellen Trainor as Mrs. Lewis replaced by Anne Bloom for the rest of seasons 1 but reappeared as The picaresque novel Spanish: This style of novel originated in Spain in and flourished throughout Europe for more than years, though the term "picaresque novel" was only coined in It continues to influence modern literature.

The term is also sometimes used to describe works, like Cervantes' Don Quixote and Charles Dickens' Pickwick Papers, which only contain some of the genre's elements. Defined According to the traditional view of Thrall and Hibbard first published in , seven qualities distinguish the picaresque novel or narrative form, all or some of which an author may employ for effect: This is an outline of commentaries and commentators. Discussed are the salient points of Jewish, patristic, medieval, and modern commentaries on the Bible. The article includes discussion of the Targums, Mishna, and Talmuds, which are not regarded as Bible commentaries in the modern sense of the word, but which provide the foundation for later commentary.

With the exception of these classical Jewish works, this article focuses on Christian Biblical commentaries; for more on Jewish Biblical commentaries, see Jewish commentaries on the Bible. Jewish commentaries Philo A visitor to Alexandria at the time when Christ was preaching in Galilee would find there and in its vicinity Jews using the Septuagint as their Bible, and could enter their Great Synagogue.

Whoever had not seen it was not supposed to have beheld the glory of Israel. The members of their Sanhedrin, according to Sukkah, were seated on seventy-one golden thrones valued at tens of thousands of talents of gold; and the building was so vast that a f The timeline of historic inventions is a chronological list of particularly important or significant technological inventions and the people who created the inventions.

Dates for inventions are often controversial. Inventions are often invented by several inventors around the same time, or may be invented in an impractical form many years before another inventor improves the invention into a more practical form. Where there is ambiguity, the date of the first known working version of the invention is used here. Earliest inventions The dates listed in this section refer to the earliest evidence of an invention found and dated by archaeologists or in a few cases, suggested by indirect evidence.

Dates are often approximate and change as more research is done, reported, and seen. Older examples of any given technology are found often. The locations listed are for the site where the earliest solid evidence has been found, but especially for the earlier inventions there is little certainty how close that This is a partial list of 20th-century writers. This list includes notable artists, authors, philosophers, playwrights, poets, scientists and other important and noteworthy contributors to literature. Literature from Latin litterae plural ; letters is the art of written works.

Literally translated, the word literature means "acquaintance with letters" as in the "arts and letters". The two most basic written literary categories include fiction and non fiction. Anderson Sherwood Anderson V. Political boundaries at the beginning of year Storming of the Bastille, July 14, , an iconic event of the French Revolution Development of the Watt steam engine in the late 18th century was an important element in the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain.

The American Revolutionary War took place in the late 18th century. The 18th century lasted from January 1, to December 31, in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the American and French revolutions. Philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age. This dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of , though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror — under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power and formed broad coalitions for the counter-revolution.

The Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecede Jeremy Bentham ; 15 February [O.

19th-century American writers

He advocated for individual and economic freedoms, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts. List of works by Joseph Priestley. Priestley by Ellen Sharples Title page from the second edition of Priestley's Essay on Government. A redacted version of Priestley's Chart of Biography. Title page from Priestley's Familiar Introduction to Electricity.

Priestley's electrical machine, illustrated in the first edition of his Familiar Introduction to Electricity. Statue of Priestley in Chamberlain Square , Birmingham. Dematteis and Peter S. Gale Group , A Bibliography of Joseph Priestley The Enlightened Joseph Priestley: A Study of His Life and Work from to Pennsylvania State University Press Member feedback about List of works by Joseph Priestley: Bibliographies by writer Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about Joseph Priestley: Member feedback about Joseph Priestley and education: English grammar Revolvy Brain revolvybrain.

Joseph Priestley and Dissent topic Priestley by Ellen Sharples [1] Joseph Priestley 13 March old style — 8 February was a British natural philosopher, political theorist, clergyman, theologian, and educator. Member feedback about Joseph Priestley and Dissent: Political philosophy Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about A Chart of Biography: Infographics Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Joseph Priestley House topic The Joseph Priestley House was the American home of 18th-century British theologian, Dissenting clergyman, natural philosopher and discoverer of oxygen , educator, and political theorist Joseph Priestley — from until his death.

Member feedback about Joseph Priestley House: Carbonated water topic A glass of sparkling water Carbonated water is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure or occurring due to natural geologic processes. Member feedback about Carbonated water: Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air topic Title page from Experiments and Observations Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air —86 is a six-volume work published by 18th-century British polymath Joseph Priestley which reports a series of his experiments on "airs" or gases, most notably his discovery of oxygen gas which he called "dephlogisticated air".

Science books Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Edward Burn topic Edward Burn — was an English cleric, known as a Calvinist Methodist preacher and polemical writer. Member feedback about Edward Burn: Joseph Smith topic Joseph Smith Jr. Member feedback about Joseph Smith: Member feedback about Henry Carrington Bolton: Historians of science Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Joseph Johnson publisher topic Joseph Johnson 15 November — 20 December was an influential 18th-century London bookseller and publisher. Member feedback about Joseph Johnson publisher: Male feminists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain.

Member feedback about Antoine Lavoisier: Gentleman scientists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about Carl Wilhelm Scheele: German chemists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about Index of philosophy articles I—Q: Member feedback about Joseph Wright of Derby: Soft drink topic A glass of cola served with ice cubes A soft drink see Terminology for other names is a drink that typically contains carbonated water although some lemonades are not carbonated , a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring.

Member feedback about Soft drink: Soft drinks Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about List of geniuses Catharine Cox Miles: Lists of people Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Index of philosophical literature topic This is a list of philosophical literature articles. Member feedback about Index of philosophical literature: Philosophy-related lists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about Edmund Gwenn: List of people from Yorkshire topic This is a list of people from Yorkshire. Member feedback about List of people from Yorkshire: Yorkshire-related lists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain.

Member feedback about List of artworks in the collection of the Royal Society of Chemistry: Arts-related lists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. George Orwell bibliography topic The bibliography of George Orwell includes journalism, essays, novels and non-fiction books written by the British writer Eric Blair —50 , either under his own name or, more usually, under his pen name George Orwell. Member feedback about George Orwell bibliography: Member feedback about Roger Joseph Boscovich: Test Act topic The Test Acts were a series of English penal laws that served as a religious test for public office and imposed various civil disabilities on Roman Catholics and nonconformists.

Member feedback about Test Act: Christianity and law in the 17th century Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Neville Prize topic The Roy G. Member feedback about Roy G. Awards started in Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Anselm Bayly topic Rev. Member feedback about Anselm Bayly: Member feedback about Biblical unitarianism: Nontrinitarianism Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Age of Enlightenment topic The Enlightenment also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason [1][2] was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, the "Century of Philosophy".

Member feedback about Age of Enlightenment: Historical eras Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. M to Z topic This is a general list of musicals, including Broadway musicals, West End musicals, and musicals that premeried in other places, as well as film musicals, whose titles fall into the M-Z alphabetic range. Member feedback about List of musicals: Lists of films by genre Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about Etruria Works: Ceramics manufacturers of England Revolvy Brain revolvybrain.

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Member feedback about List of Christians in science and technology: Lists of scientists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about National Historic Chemical Landmarks: American Chemical Society Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about Derby Museum and Art Gallery: Ceramics museums in the United Kingdom Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about List of accolades and awards received by Ingmar Bergman: Lists of awards by director Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about Edward VII: People of the Edwardian era Revolvy Brain revolvybrain.

Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission topic The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission PHMC is the governmental agency of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania responsible for the collection, conservation and interpretation of Pennsylvania's historic heritage. Member feedback about Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission: Government agencies started in Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Member feedback about Mary Wollstonecraft: English feminists Revolvy Brain revolvybrain.

Hartleys psychological, philosophical, and theological treatise postulated a theory of mind. Hartley aimed to construct a Christian philosophy in both religious and moral facts could be scientifically proven, a goal that would occupy Priestley for his entire life. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in , the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after as well.

The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until However, they had come into a union in Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament.

Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union , legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. The same year, the Irish constitution of produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage.

Clergy — Clergy are some of the main and important formal leaders within certain religions. The roles and functions of clergy vary in different religious traditions but these usually involve presiding over specific rituals, some of the terms used for individual clergy are cleric, clergyman, clergywoman, clergyperson and churchman. In Islam, a leader is often known formally or informally as an imam, mufti. In Jewish tradition, a leader is often a rabbi or hazzan.

Cleric comes from the ecclesiastical Latin clericus, for belonging to the priestly class. Clerk, which used to mean one ordained to the ministry, in the Middle Ages, reading and writing were almost exclusively the domain of the priestly class, and this is the reason for the close relationship of these words. Now, the state is tied to reception of the diaconate.

Minor Orders are still given in the Eastern Catholic Churches, and it is in this sense that the word entered the Arabic language, most commonly in Lebanon from the French, as kleriki meaning seminarian. This is all in keeping with Eastern Orthodox concepts of clergy, which include those who have not yet received, or do not plan to receive. A priesthood is a body of priests, shamans, or oracles who have religious authority or function. Buddhist clergy are often referred to as the Sangha. This diversity of monastic orders and styles was originally one community founded by Gautama Buddha during the 5th century BC living under a set of rules.

The interaction between Buddhism and Tibetan Bon led to a uniquely Tibetan Buddhism, within which various sects, similarly, the interaction between Indian Buddhist monks and Chinese Confucian and Taoist monks from ccAD produced the distinctive Chan Buddhism. In these ways, manual labour was introduced to a practice where monks originally survived on alms, layers of garments were added where originally a single thin robe sufficed and this adaptation of form and roles of Buddhist monastic practice continued after the transmission to Japan.

For example, monks took on administrative functions for the Emperor in particular secular communities, again, in response to various historic attempts to suppress Buddhism, the practice of celibacy was relaxed and Japanese monks allowed to marry. This form was then transmitted to Korea, during later Japanese occupation, as these varied styles of Buddhist monasticism are transmitted to Western cultures, still more new forms are being created.

This broad difference in approach led to a schism among Buddhist monastics in about the 4th century BCE. Political philosophy — In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period.

The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws.

Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism, the Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism.

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Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, prior to Chinas adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century. Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato, ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories, timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy.

One of the first, extremely important classical works of philosophy is Platos Republic. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and the Roman statesman Cicero, Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between nation and state religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises, the institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order.

Mantranga, the governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive, chanakya, 4th century BC Indian political philosopher. Another influential extant Indian treatise on philosophy is the Sukra Neeti.

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Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, augustines City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth. Thomas Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of law, according to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law, Eternal law Divine positive law Natural law Human law Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of canon law.

There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an influential thinker in the Natural Law tradition. Theology — Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil.

Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology.

They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman.

The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages.

Oxygen — Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2.

This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog.

At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass.

Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it.

Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione.

Joseph Priestley: The man who discovered Oxygen

Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in by the German alchemist J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx.

The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products. Gas — Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter. A pure gas may be made up of atoms, elemental molecules made from one type of atom. A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air, what distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles.

This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer, the interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image. One type of commonly known gas is steam, the gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases.

Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention, high-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas.

For a comprehensive listing of these states of matter see list of states of matter. The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at temperature and pressure, are hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. These gases, when grouped together with the noble gases. Alternatively they are known as molecular gases to distinguish them from molecules that are also chemical compounds.

The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist J. An alternative story is that Van Helmonts word is corrupted from gahst and these four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law.

Gas particles are separated from one another, and consequently have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another, transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction of these forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas.

A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion, the drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior. Toleration — Toleration is the acceptance of an action, object or person which one dislikes or disagrees with, where one is in a position to disallow it but chooses not to.

Differ from ones own, freedom from bigotry too, there is only one verb to tolerate and one adjective tolerant, but the two nouns tolerance and toleration have evolved slightly different meanings. Tolerance is an attitude of mind that implies non-judgmental acceptance of different lifestyles or beliefs, historically, most incidents and writings pertaining to toleration involve the status of minority and dissenting viewpoints in relation to a dominant state religion.

The word tolerance was first used in the 15th century, the word is derived from endurance and fortitude, used in the 14th century.

Joseph Priestley

According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word was first used to describe having permission from authorities in the s. As reported in the Old Testament, the Persian king Cyrus the Great was believed to have released the Jews from captivity in — BCE, and permitted their return to their homeland. The Hellenistic city of Alexandria, founded BCE, contained a large Jewish community which lived in peace with equivalently sized Greek, according to Michael Walzer, the city provided a useful example of what we might think of as the imperial version of multiculturalism.

The Roman Empire encouraged conquered peoples to continue worshipping their own gods, an important part of Roman propaganda was its invitation to the gods of conquered territories to enjoy the benefits of worship within the imperium. Christians were singled out for persecution because of their own rejection of Roman pantheism, in CE, Roman Emperor Galerius issued a general edict of toleration of Christianity, in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine I. In the Old Testament, the books of Exodus, Leviticus, julia Kristeva elucidated a philosophy of political and religious toleration based on all of our mutual identities as strangers.

The New Testament Parable of the Tares, which speaks of the difficulty of distinguishing wheat from weeds before harvest time, has also been invoked in support of religious toleration. In his Letter to Bishop Roger of Chalons, Bishop Wazo of Liege relied on the parable to argue that the church should let dissent grow with orthodoxy until the Lord comes to separate, instead, Williams believed it was Gods duty to judge in the end, not mans.

This parable lent further support to Williams Biblical philosophy of a wall of separation between church and state as described in his book, The Bloody Tenent of Persecution, in the Middle Ages, there were instances of toleration of particular groups. The Latin concept tolerantia was a political and judicial concept in mediaeval scholastic theology. Tolerantia was used to denote the self-restraint of a power in the face of outsiders, like infidels, Muslims or Jews. Heretics such as the Cathari, Waldensians, Jan Hus, and his followers, later theologians belonging or reacting to the Protestant Reformation began discussion of the circumstances under which dissenting religious thought should be permitted.

Toleration as a practice in Christian countries, the sense on which most discussion of the phenomenon relies—is not attested before the sixteenth century. Historiography — Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using particular sources, techniques, beginning in the nineteenth century, with the ascent of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature.

Bibliographies by writer

The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups, in , of 5, faculty in the departments of history at British universities,1, identified themselves with social history and 1, identified themselves with political history. In the early period, the term historiography meant the writing of history. In that sense certain official historians were given the title Historiographer Royal in Sweden, England, the Scottish post is still in existence.

Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. For the purposes of article, history is taken to mean written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events.

List of works by Joseph Priestley - Wikipedia

Before writing, there was only oral history or oral tradition, in China, the earliest history was recorded in oracle bone script which was deciphered and may date back to around late 2nd millennium BCE. The Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BCE, is the earliest written of narrative history in the world, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius, zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE.

Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era, traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles.

In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder, over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty, the tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi, a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was completed in and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, the latter work is now lost. The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi, the first of these works were the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in Electricity — Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence of electric charge.

Although initially considered a separate to magnetism, since the development of Maxwells Equations both are recognized as part of a single phenomenon, electromagnetism. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges, in addition, electricity is at the heart of many modern technologies. The presence of a charge, which can be either positive or negative. On the other hand, the movement of charges, which is known as electric current. When a charge is placed in a location with non-zero electric field, the magnitude of this force is given by Coulombs Law.



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Thus, if that charge were to move, the field would be doing work on the electric charge.