Orchestral Conducting - A Textbook for Students and Amateurs

Lists with This Book. This book is not yet featured on Listopia. Eric Peterson rated it really liked it Sep 07, Lane rated it it was amazing Mar 27, Mike Birman rated it it was amazing Jun 13, Brandon rated it really liked it Feb 25, Cody Criswell rated it it was ok Jan 23, Ev rated it liked it Apr 26, Bobby rated it it was amazing Dec 02, James F rated it liked it Feb 04, Son Melo rated it it was amazing Sep 10, Rosie rated it really liked it Mar 14, Jeff rated it liked it Jul 16, Andrew Van Dyke rated it it was amazing Jan 23, Rosemary added it Jul 07, Ron Noble marked it as to-read Sep 20, Chicho added it Dec 11, Jonathan Reed marked it as to-read Dec 16, Livmuz marked it as to-read Dec 17, Valentin Cocry added it Jul 16, Darlu added it Aug 27, Chris marked it as to-read Sep 28, Sudeep marked it as to-read Mar 13, Rbgtoffolo marked it as to-read May 23, Casey Belrose added it Aug 17, Ana Matias marked it as to-read Sep 22, Brandy marked it as to-read Nov 20, Rosita Zhang added it Dec 17, Sinclair Mallia marked it as to-read Feb 24, Stoica Ionut marked it as to-read Feb 27, Yessi Sanchez marked it as to-read Sep 08, Alex Sasha added it Nov 13, Felipe Bracho marked it as to-read Dec 25, To begin with, the program should be a graded one containing music from each of three categories: One major work or at most two may present technical and aesthetic problems slightly over the collective heads of the players.

These should be just difficult enough to enable them to benefit from working out the solutions, but not so difficult that the work cannot be brought to successful performance at the conclusion of the allotted number of rehearsals. The supporting program should be divided between pieces that will be easy to prepare and those that present prob- lems of moderate difficulty. One of these may be utilized as the opening number of the concert for the dual pur- pose of "playing the orchestra in" and of allowing the players to conquer the inevitable initial nervousness with- out undue mental or physical strain.

In considering the instrumentation of his orchestra, the conductor can follow one of two courses: Needless to say, I feel that it is far better to fit the music to the orchestra. Chapter XI will describe in detail sources of material for orchestras whose instrumentation is incomplete, as well as material that will lend itself to limitless adaptation to meet special re- quirements. In cases where such a policy, exclusively pursued, unduly limits the musical fare of the orchestra, the conductor should beg or borrow the services of other amateur players, not professionals, on the missing instru- ments.

Any other procedure is a negation of the amateur ideal and places the orchestra in a musical demimonde. Credit should be given to these guests on the program. Time is, therefore, a major factor in determining the content of the concert program. With one drawn up along the lines previously suggested, it is not difficult to place the rehearsal empha- sis on the major work or works and still allot sufficient time to the preparation of the balance of the program.

If the conductor errs and chooses a program that is too consistently difficult, the rehearsals will necessarily de- velop increasingly into high-pressure affairs. The prepa- ration of some of the works will have to be slighted, often at the last moment, and the conductor will be forced to ask for additional rehearsals just before the concert. No amateur group can thrive under these conditions. In addition to the relative difficulty of each of the works chosen, the actual playing time of the entire pro- gram must be kept in mind.

As will be pointed out more fully later, it is better to plan a program of moderate pro- portions, for the sake of both the audience and the or- chestra, and thus assure its adequate preparation in a sequence of unhurried, well-planned rehearsals. Unless carefully timed, a program can easily go to one extreme or the other and become either too long or too short. I shall never forget being the co-author of a program per- formed by the Harvard Orchestra in the college chapel which, though it looked ample on paper, was over in just twenty-nine minutes.

As it closed, latecomers were still arriving! The more common type of program is one which includes works from different periods, styles, and composers. It achieves variety and interest through combining music from the classic, romantic, impression- Program building Si ist and modern schools; by contrasting full orchestra with small orchestra; or by including works for strings alone or winds alone.

It may feature a solo instrument with orchestral accompaniment or a work for chorus and orchestra. Unity of program may be achieved by limiting it to the works of one composer, of one national school, or of a single period of music history. In general, the first of these should be avoided. A meal consisting solely of five kinds of lamb, no matter how differently each is pre- pared, would prove uninteresting to both the cook and the consumer.

The History of Orchestration

A more satisfactory program for an ama- teur group can be fashioned from the works of two com- posers Bach and Handel, or Bach and Mozart, for ex- ample. The program from one national school does not need elaboration here as the content is self-evident. There are many possibilities when one plans an historical program: The following are some sample programs, briefly ana- lyzed along the fines discussed so far in this chapter, together with a statement of the conditions under which they were prepared for concert performance.

Overture to "Prometheus" 2. Concerto Grosso in F for strings and continuo 3. Andante in F-sharp minor for strings 5. Fugato on a Well-known Theme This program was prepared by the Wellesley College Orchestra in about eight weeks, two rehearsals per week of one hour and twenty minutes each. Instrumentation was complete except for the horns called for in num- bers 3 and 5, and the trombones in the latter. These instrumentalists were "borrowed" from the Harvard Or- chestra for the final rehearsals and the concert.

Num- bers 1,3, and 5 are for full orchestra; numbers 2 and 4, for strings alone, with the addition of cembalo piano in number 2. All these works have been published except number 4, which was reproduced from manuscript photo- graphs made by the conductor in the British Museum. Numbers 3 and 5 are the difficult pieces; numbers 1 and 2, of moderate difficulty; and number 4 presents no tech- nical problems at all. The Beethoven work answers the requirements for a good opening number.

Overture to "II Matrimonio segreto" 2. Concerto in D minor for two violins 3. Chaconne in E minor 4. Two lyric pieces for strings 5. Symphony in E flat "Drum Roll" Program B was prepared by the Harvard University Orchestra in approximately six weeks, two rehearsals per week of two hours each. Instrumentation was com- plete. Numbers 3 and 5 are the difficult works; numbers 1 and 2, moderately difficult; number 4, comparatively easy. The orchestra that semester included an unusually large number of newcomers, and the difficulty of the program was modified somewhat. Overture to "Love in a Tub" 2.

Five Pieces for Strings 3. Concerto in A major for Clarinet 4. Trauermusik for solo viola and strings 5. The full orchestra works are numbers 1,3, and 5. The difficult numbers are 2 and 3; numbers 4 and 1 are of moderate difficulty; number 5 is easy. All are published except number 1, which is from a British Museum manuscript. A student soloist played the concerto. The orchestra was privileged to have Mr. Hindemith as guest conductor for number 2 and as viola soloist in number 4. Overture to "The Magic Flute" 2.

Symphony in D major "Clock" 3. Sonata pian e forte, for brass instru- ments 4. Concerto in A major for piano 5. This program has a more consistently high level of difficulty because the players at that time were largely upperclassmen with considerable experience. The solo- ist in the Mozart was a member of the Harvard Music Department. Concerto for Grand Orchestra 2. Prelude from the "Pelleas and Melisande" Suite 3.

Fugue from the Suite for Flute and Strings 4. Concerto in C major for Piano first movement 5. Adagio for Strings 6. Symphony in B flat Major No. Instrumentation was com- plete except for second bassoon and second horn. Num- bers 5 and 6, difficult; numbers 2 and 4, moderately dif- ficult; numbers 1 and 3 easy. The soloist was an eleven- year-old camper. Concerto in F minor for klavier and strings 4. Numbers 1 and 5 both call for strings and a few winds, and may be expanded by means of careful editing to include other instruments which are available but not scored in the original version.

Number 2 calls for two flutes, violas, cellos, and basses; number 4, for a solo violin, flute, and piano accompanied by strings. Number 5 was arranged for full orchestra by the conductor. The music of this particular period has another advantage for the small amateur orchestra in that the conventional continuo part gives the conductor an opportunity to use available piano talent. The Historical Program The following two programs are examples of what may be done in presenting music illustrating a particular his- torical sequence.

They are the first two of a series of three concerts given by the Wellesley College Orchestra in illustrating the development of instrumen- tal music from to Mozart. They were planned pri- marily to supplement college courses in music history and appreciation, but complete texts and extensive program notes made it possible for the general public to under- stand and enjoy the various works. Several examples of choral music were included as a matter of interest and for purposes of contrast.

Dance Suite for Flute and Strings 2. Tower Music for Brass Instruments 5. Sinfonia Fifteenth Century 6. Lachrimae Antiquae for Divers In- struments and Voyces 7. Ricercare del sesto tono 8. Tower Chorales for Brass: Sinfonia to "La Rosaura" A program of this sort calls for considerable research on the part of the conductor in unearthing historical material and editing it for his particular instrumentation. With the exception of number 2, there is not a single number listed that is not adaptable for any combination of instruments under the sun, from four recorders to a full symphony orchestra.

Such a program has a special value for schools and colleges, as it affords music stu- dents and others the opportunity to hear actual perform- ances of music which they might otherwise only see printed in textbooks and anthologies. Very little of this type of early instrumental music has been recorded.

Program G covers the period from to , and the following programs one of which is given — pro- gram H carry on from , a slight retrogression, to Mozart.

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Studentenmusik Suite in C major 2. Two Instrumental Pieces for Viols 4. Studentenmusik Suite in D minor 2. Andante from the "Surprise" symphony 4. Concerto in C major for three Klavier and Strings 5. Suite from the ballet-pantomime "Don Juan" This program was prepared by the Radclirle College Orchestra, at that time consisting of a complete string section, three flutes, two clarinets, one horn, two trum- pets, tympani, and piano.

All these works except num- ber 5 are published. The latter is available in full score in the Denkmaler Tonkunst series.

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The original instru- mentation of numbers 1, 2, and 5 was either added to or adapted for the needs of the orchestra in question. Suite from "The Virtuous Wife" 2. Concerto Grosso in F major for Strings and Cembalo 3. Sinfonia in B flat Major 4. The instrumentation then was complete strings, four flutes, one oboe, three clarinets, one bassoon, and piano. All these works are published.

Only number 5 had to be adapted for the orchestra by the addition of wind and brass parts the original called for strings only. Additional program material will be found in the appendix, and a further discussion of sources of program material in Chapter XI. To sum up program making for the amateur orchestra: The conductor has to face the in- exorable fact that he has but a limited number of re- hearsals at his disposal and a fairly inflexible amount of time per rehearsal. He cannot afford, therefore, to limit his planning to improvising work schedules from one rehearsal to the next.

Concerts have an insidious habit of creeping up surreptitiously on the conductor who follows this procedure. To take the utmost advantage of the available re- hearsal time, the conductor should draw up in advance two plans of attack: The over-all plan may be divided into three phases with three separate objectives: Isolation of technical problems is the keynote of the detailed plan. The players must be brought face to face with the most difficult passages on the program for the purpose of concentrating on mastering them to the ex- clusion of all else.

This procedure calls for a time schedule for each individual rehearsal drawn up as rehearsals pro- gress but within the framework of the over-all plan devised before the season begins. The over-all plan just mentioned divides the total number of rehearsals into three categories — reading re- hearsals, detailed rehearsals, and final rehearsals.

The proportion of each might be as follows: Thus a college orchestra producing one concert per se- mester in twenty rehearsals would have three reading, twelve detailed, and five final rehearsals. The function of each of these three categories may be defined as follows: To read through each work on the program in its entirety, if possible without stopping, in order to give the players a bird's-eye view — a look at the entire landscape, if you will, before settling down to the study of individual bits of the topography.

These rehearsals serve a three-fold purpose: To resume the study of each work as a whole and to concentrate on interpretation for the purpose of bringing to life the beauty latent in the music. The reasons for the reading rehearsals have been stated and are, it seems to me, self-evident. A word of explana- tion is needed, however, about the purpose of dividing the remaining rehearsal time between work on details and on what may be termed the recreative process. Through practical experience and observation, I have come to believe strongly that the best concert results are obtained only by having the orchestra concentrate on one problem at a time, each problem reduced to its simplest terms.

Amateur players cannot be expected to learn the notes, solve the rhythmic problems, observe the phrase markings and the dynamic indications, and follow the conductor's beat all at the same time. When this is attempted, progress is slow and unsatisfactory to the conductor and the players alike. Much of the work of one rehearsal has to be reviewed at the next, for the mind cannot be expected to assimilate, nor the memory to retain, details of instruction under so many and such varied headings. First things must come first.

In the detailed rehearsals, therefore, the orchestra concentrates on the problems which have been isolated for them by the conductor. The rehearsal time is spent entirely on the passages con- taining these problems. No attempt is made to distract the players from their preoccupation with notes and rhythms by insisting on more than a superficial adher- ence to the indicated dynamics. The conductor chooses a rehearsal tempo that is conservative compared to the eventual concert tempo.

Except for attacks, releases, and holds, the players are not necessarily required to pay close atten- tion to the conductor's beat during these rehearsals. The success of the final rehearsals and the concert will depend entirely on the efficiency and thoroughness with which the technical and rhythmic foundations are laid in these rehearsals on details. Only a thorough knowl- edge of the notes can free the players from the printed page. Then, and then only, can the conductor have the degree of control over his forces that is so vitally neces- sary when the orchestra comes to grips with the problems of interpretation in the final rehearsals.

Here, and in the concert, he must be able to demand and obtain a quick and unanimous response to his gestures. The following will show how the reading rehearsal plan is applied to a specific program. The following works were prepared by the Wellesley College Orchestra in nineteen rehearsals of one hour and twenty minutes each. Of these nineteen rehearsals, three were devoted to read- ing through the various numbers.

Overture to "LTsola disabitata" 2. Concerto in G minor for Strings and Cembalo 3. Symphonie Concertante in E flat, for violin and viola 4. Fantasy on a theme of Thomas Tallis for double string orchestra 5. Numbers 3 and 4 are difficult; numbers 1 and 5, moderately difficult; num- ber 2 is easy. In this way, the conductor was assured that the required ground could be covered in the allotted number of rehearsals. The results were as follows: Theme and first three variations Mozart: First movement without soloists Vivaldi: First movement Rehearsal 2 Ballantine: Second movement without soloists Vivaldi: Third movement without soloists Vivaldi: Because of its technical dif- ficulty and the complex way in which the string section has to be divided, it was assigned for individual outside practice before rehearsal.

Both halves of the work, therefore, were prepared rather than read at sight. The only actual training the orchestra receives during the reading rehearsals, apart from attacks, releases, and holds, is in the vital matter of individual and sectional tuning. This cannot be stressed too early nor too often, for it is the sole foundation upon which a successful amateur orchestra can be built. Such a parlous state of affairs is inexcusable, and the blame can be laid at but one door — the conductor's. No re- hearsal should be begun until the entire orchestra has been tuned carefully, not in a wild melee of fortissimo A's.

Unless ruthlessly drilled, the players will begin to tune even before the correct pitch has been sounded, mingling the hurly-burly with snatches of the Mendelssohn violin concerto, "Til Eulenspiegal," and "Lenore No. However, this is only the beginning, for the pitch must be checked before every number on the rehearsal schedule.

In addi- tion, the word "intonation" should be brought up every quarter-hour, on the quarter-hour — oftener if the occa- sion calls for it, and it will. Tuning discipline in rehearsal must be so stringent and so well organized that by the time of the first public concert the orchestra will be capable of adjusting accurately, quickly, and quietly to the given pitch with a minimum of extraneous music- making.

There remains to be discussed the question of marking uniform bowings, fingerings, and phrasing in the parts. With orchestras of elementary school age, this has to be done entirely by the conductor. With high-school, college, and community orchestras, there is much to be gained from having the principals of the various sections take over this responsibility.

The conductor may or may not need to serve as advisor. If he does, a series of meetings with the principals may be held as the reading rehearsals progress and while the music is fresh in their minds. If he overrules a suggestion from a player, he should take care to give his reasons. This cooperative system enables the players to obtain valuable experience under expert guidance, and also makes them feel that they are an integral part of the organization of the orchestra.

This work is important because its objectives are to secure uniform bowing in each string section, to give fingerings which may facilitate the playing of difficult passages, to secure uniform phrasing in the winds and brasses, and to check the work of the editor. Under this last division I would include making changes where the editing is impractical for the particular orchestra in ques- tion, or where the editing is in questionable musical taste. See practically any orchestral edition of the works of Bach or Handel.

With the completion of this task, the work of the reading rehearsals is over. He will also know what passages in each of the works on the program are going to prove the most diffi- cult from the point of view of technique, intonation, rhythm, or balance. It is on these passages, and these alone, that the orchestra will concentrate during the detailed rehearsals. The conductor must analyze the results of the reading rehearsals with the greatest care. The most difficult pas- sages will need to be assigned for individual outside practice and, in addition, receive the greatest amount of rehearsal time.

Those of medium difficulty may require separate rehearsing on the part of a particular section or even an individual player wind or brass , while passages of negligible technical difficulty but involving problems of balance between sections may be worked out in regular rehearsals. The analysis of the program cited in the preceding chapter was as follows: An ensemble problem involving cor- rect balance among the strings, once the running passages are mastered.

Outside practice for the horns in transpo- sition and at least one brass and wind section rehearsal with the conductor. Very little need for detailed work in rehearsal. Some passages for individual private practice.

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An early start may be made on "playing the piece in. The players may come to grips with problems of balance and interpretation almost at once without waiting for the final rehearsals. Many difficult passages for all sections, about equally divided between the first and last movements.

Because of the form of these movements, with constant thematic repetition in the original or related keys, the technical mastery of one passage usually means the mastery of several others — except, of course, for any intonation problems which may arise through modula- tion. Rehearsal time may be concentrated on the orches- tral tuttis, for the accompaniments to solo passages are invariably simple. The main problem in the latter will be to achieve balance between the solo instruments and the orchestra.

A beginning on this will be made toward the end of the detailed rehearsals, when the soloists will make their first appearance. The technical problems of the in- dividual sections he mostly in passages in the higher posi- tions for the violins and cellos. These must be assigned for outside practice, along with the passages for solo string quartet. The quartet must also be coached by the conductor outside of the regular rehearsals.

See the example at the end of this chapter. Apart from this, the main problem is that of balance between the two orches- tras and the solo quartet. The conductor must take great pains to divide the string talent at his disposal evenly between the two orchestras. These brief and humorous variations in the styles of various composers are not technically diffi- cult except for those in imitation of Wagner and Debussy.

Of all the numbers on the program, only these two varia- tions and the Haydn overture seem to call for wind and brass sectional rehearsals. One-half hour of concentrated work on each will probably suffice. At the last reading rehearsal, the conductor announces the exact schedule for the first of the detailed rehearsals and makes specific assignments of passages for individual outside practice.

If the morale and group spirit of the orchestra is already high, it will not be necessary to dwell on the importance of individual cooperation in this matter. If the conductor is in the process of creating or developing these indispensable elements, it will be well to point out that time is short and that the progress of the orchestra will be retarded if time has to be taken in rehearsal to allow procrastinators to do their prac- ticing in public.

As a general rule, it is not a good policy to require any member of an amateur orchestra to play alone for purposes other than constructive criticism. I would make an exception to this rule in the case of those isolated individuals who prove to be non-coopera- tive or lax in outside practice. Such a procedure will encourage the workers and stimulate the drones, for it will show that the conductor is in earnest.

The orchestra is better off without the services of players who do not respond to such an obvious hint. Without a schedule as a guide, it is fatally easy for the conductor to become absorbed in one particular problem and devote a disproportionate amount of time to it, to the ultimate detriment of the over-all preparation of the program.

This, in turn, de- prives the orchestra of the variety it should find in the work of each rehearsal and undermines the players' interest. The advantages of the time schedule are these: One note of warning about rehearsal schedules: I know from ex- perience that the conductor will have to use considerable self-discipline in the matter of adhering to the time schedule once he has drawn it up, lest he destroy its effectiveness. To illustrate the use of schedules with the program under discussion: A warm-up run through the entire work 6 minutes ; detailed passage-work in the introduction and the first allegro at a reduced tempo 9 minutes.

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Some work with an individual string section if required. Brief pause for announcements, and set- ting the stage for the next number. Winds, brass, and percussion excused. Opening section to letter D, working on rhythm, intonation, and technique. Some work by sections in the difficult spots. Rehearsal ends with a nonstop playing of the assignment to D to consolidate the gains thus far made.

The two variations in the styles of Tschaikovsky and Wagner; the former used as a warm-up piece with a little additional detailed work; concentration on passages from the latter. Review work of the previous rehearsal without stopping; continue work on details to letter E or F depending on the rate of progress. One by one, the various orchestral problems presented by each of the works on the program are introduced into the rehearsal schedules for dissection, working out, and review at the end of each of the periods assigned.

If not more than two schedules are posted at a time, the em- phasis may easily be kept in a constant state of flux and shifted from one problem to another as the need develops. There are several ways in which necessary sectional rehearsals may be incorporated into this plan. The con- ductor will seldom feel able to devote an entire rehearsal to one section unless he has an assistant and can hold two concurrent rehearsals. If he has not, one solution would be to devote the end of a rehearsal to one partic- ular section, excusing the other players see Rehearsals 4 and 5. A corollary to this would be to begin a re- hearsal with one section and have the full orchestra report at a predetermined later time.

This allows both the conductor and the players a higher degree of con- centration than is possible at a rehearsal of the full orchestra and avoids the loss of interest which invariably results when too much sectional work is attempted with all the players present. In the detailed rehearsals, the conductor must con- stantly strive to isolate a technical problem, reduce it to its simplest terms, and show the players specifically how to solve it.

In this connection, one concrete and well- chosen example is worth a hundred words of explanation. Conductors, as a class, are a wordy lot. I have actually seen, perhaps I should say heard, a young man spend twenty minutes on the first sixteen bars of a Handel overture. The time was divided as follows: Needless to say, the repetition contained the same faults that the conductor had cor- rectly noted in the first place. The amateur player wants to be told just two things about his mistakes — what is wrong and how to correct it.

In many cases, the point may be made even more quickly by singing. The conductor should not be deterred from resorting to vocal illustra- tions even if his singing verges on public scandal. If, as a last resort, words must be used to solve a technical impasse, let the explanation be mercifully brief. One of the basic problems that must be faced in these detailed rehearsals is the matter of orchestral balance.

In nine cases out of ten, the dynamics indicated in the score and the parts are misleading. For example, in a given passage all the voices may be uniformly marked fortissimo. If the players are allowed to interpret this literally, the main theme and any important counterpoint may easily be covered by the purely harmonic material given to other instruments — the brasses, for example. This is particularly true when the main theme is in an inner voice. A given passage must be taken apart in order that the players may see exactly how it is constructed, and how the melody, counterpoint, and harmony are dis- tributed among the several instruments.

Only then can they successfully be taught to subordinate themselves and to play slightly below the indicated dynamic when they do not have the main theme or important contrapun- tal material.

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A constant give-and-take between sections is the only basis for satisfactory balance in orchestral playing. Although the isolation of technical difficulties is of assistance in rehearsal, many problems need, in addition, to be reduced to their simplest terms. For example, a passage involving the use of trills, appoggiaturas, or other ornaments should first be practiced without them. The passage should first be mastered in its simplest form and then, with the basic rhythm firmly established, the ornaments can be added.

Concentrated drill of this sort is invaluable in devel- oping cohesion and unity within a section, as well as balance between sections. The conductor must not accept less than the players' best efforts in working on details, and must not leave a given problem until the predeter- mined amount of progress for that particular rehearsal has been attained.

No matter how great the concentration may be at a given moment, the conductor cannot afford to let errors of pitch, note value, or rhythm pass un- checked. The difficulty will be to teach the players the correct interpretation of each of these effects and to secure the universal participation in them of all the players.

It is not enough for a few players to respond. Too often such rhythmic variations as these, which add spice and drive to the interpretation, are so weak that they are audible only on the stage. If anything, they must be overdone if the composer's full intent is to be conveyed to the audience. Syncopation is another amateur stumbling block. The difficulty the conductor has to face is in obtaining the clean articulation of each syncopated beat so necessary for the successful execution of this type of rhythm. Allegro Inexperienced players seem to have difficulty in play- ing a triplet rhythm accurately.

A useful device for rhythmic practice is to have the players go over a particular passage without their in- struments, tapping out the rhythm on the music stand or merely clapping their hands. This reduces the problem to its essentials by removing, for the time being, the tech- nical and pitch complications. A few extra minutes of this sort of practice will save rehearsal time by fixing the correct rhythmic pattern firmly in the minds of the players before they are asked to play it on their instruments.

There is one important physiological element to be considered in drawing up rehearsal time schedules: It is well to begin the rehearsal with a comparatively easy number, to allow the players to limber up; but this should be followed by the most diffi- cult work on the schedule, while the orchestra is still fresh. The greatest progress will be made during the early and middle stages of a rehearsal, before the players begin to tire and their powers of concentration to weaken. The technical demands upon the orchestra should, whenever possible, taper off toward the end, but in any event the conductor should endeavor to lighten the intensity of the work as the rehearsal progresses.

Another way to keep rehearsal efficiency at a high level and at the same time introduce the element of variety is to allot a short period in one or two of the detailed rehearsals to sight reading. This device post- pones the onset of physical and mental fatigue in the individual rehearsal, and also gives the players a momen- tary respite from the necessarily hard work of preparing for the concert.

Reproduced by permission of G. Curwen and Sons Ltd. His two objectives have been to show the players how to master the music under prepa- ration; to mold individuals into well-integrated sections, and those sections into a cohesive, vertebrate whole. In so doing, he has been laying the foundation for his ulti- mate goal: The acid test of the conductor as a teacher will be the degree of success he attains as a creative artist with his amateur group.

The re-creative process calls for sound musicianship, sensitive emotion, and — above all — imagination. The conductor needs to have a complete command of the scores in order to plan the performance of each, detail by detail. He must be able to obtain the utmost contrast between movements, and even between themes, without sacrificing the necessary continuity and flow of musical thought. He must temper the re-creative process to the period and style of the individual composer if he is to avoid producing a program completely in the image of his own artistic ego. Mozart must not sound like Schu- bert, Beethoven like Brahms, nor Tschaikovsky like a storm in a cavern.

Artistic integrity demands that the performance of each work be as close to the composer's indicated intent as the conductor's musicianship and the ability of his players will allow. A mastery of the score, however, is not enough. The final and indispensable elements are emotional sensitivity and imagination, for these determine whether the music really lives in sound or merely exists. The conductor must not only feel deeply the emotional content of the music but must be able to teach his players to feel it as well, if the performance is to have warmth, sincerity, and depth with which to convince the hearer.

Inner conviction, com- municated to amateur musicians through the medium of inspirational leadership, can easily cause them to rise above their technical limitations. In order to achieve success in the re-creative process, the conductor must have the orchestra, figuratively speak- ing, in the palm of his hand. He has prepared the way for this in the detailed rehearsals by seeing to it that the players learn the notes of the most difficult passages thor- oughly.

The first concern of the final rehearsals must be to pry the players loose from their preoccupation with the music itself. The word "pry" is used advisedly here, for the printed page exercises an almost hypnotic power over the amateur player. If left to his own devices, he will see the initial beat and the final release but not much in between. This game of musical follow-the-leader quickly becomes a battle of wits which accomplishes the desired results with a minimum of drudgery and a maximum of amusement for all concerned.

There is an infinite number of variations of tempo and dynamics which may be em- ployed: This procedure will quickly train the players to look up frequently without losing their places in the music, and will speed up their instinctive responses to the indications of the conductor's baton and left hand, not to mention his eyes and facial expression. To rein- force this sort of training, the conductor should give many cues for entrances of important thematic material and teach his players to watch for them.

The high degree of control which will result from practice of this sort will enable the conductor to capitalize on the emotional sensi- tivity which develops under concert conditions. Given this control over his forces, the conductor can achieve greater freedom of interpretation in concert than has ever been attained in rehearsal.

The result will be a perform- ance that is a stimulating emotional and artistic experi- ence for the audience and the players alike. Naturally, the conductor must have both the crafts- manship and the personality necessary to make a success of this technique. I realize that this seems like a dangerous procedure to attempt with amateurs, but I have seen it succeed many times.

It will succeed, however, only when the players have been so well coached in rehearsal that they come to the concert with complete confidence in themselves and their ability to play the program before them. The only alternative to this approach is for the conductor to impose his inter- pretive ideas by rote.

This is a formidable task, as in a given program there will be a thousand and one small details to be worked out and remembered. There is never enough rehearsal time to make this feasible. Even if there were, the collective memory of amateur players would not be able to retain so much material. To indicate what is meant by "the main outlines of the re-creative process," I would like to turn specifically to the work of the final rehearsals and discuss it under the following headings: Tempo and Rhythm All the rehearsals in the final period must be con- ducted at the tempi the conductor intends to use in the concert, in order to fix them firmly in the minds of the players.

The various artificial devices the conductor may have used during the detailed rehearsals for keeping the orchestra together, such as counting aloud, tapping the baton on the stand, or even stamping his foot, must be abandoned completely. Needless to say, none of these should be used in the concert, nor should the conductor indulge in any public singing! The orchestra must be taught to establish the correct tempo and the basic rhythm from the very first measure, for one of the outstanding failings of the average amateur orchestra is its tendency to take four or five measures to settle down to what is indicated in the parts.

The con- ductor must see to it that the players have an accurate mental picture of these two elements in order that they may be established from the very start. To assure this, the beginning of every piece or movement must be re- hearsed several times at each playing. It is helpful, both in rehearsal and in concert, to give at least two prepara- tory beats before the orchestra begins to play. As an additional safeguard, the orchestra might well be re- quired to memorize the first one or two measures in order to watch the conductor even more closely during the first few critical moments of a piece.

All changes and departures from the initial tempo or rhythm must be quickly observed and immediately conveyed to the ear of the listener. Here again, the amateur needs to be trained to avoid a delayed reaction or a momentary indecision. The orchestra must also be shown how to differentiate between the strong and weak beats of any given rhythm in order to avoid a feeling of monotony — unless such a feeling is the deliberate intent of the composer.

The tendency of the amateur player is to treat each beat of a measure as though it were of equal rhythmic impor- tance. The clipping of note values is an occupational disease with amateur orchestras, to the very great detriment of the mass of orchestral tone, the harmonic background, and the basic rhythm.



The conductor will undoubtedly find it necessary to give at least one illustrated lecture per season on the general subject "How Long Is a Quarter-note? It is not difficult to prove, by actual demon- stration, that the "mortality rate" among the players increases as the baton approaches the "click" of the second beat until practically no one is giving the quarter- note its full value. Unless note values are carefully ob- served by all the players, the general effect will be destroyed in one of the following ways: The rhythmic and melodic content of each measure must be related to the phrase of which it is a part in order to avoid the sound of a succession of small units lacking in coherence, however accurately played.

Amateur or- chestras tend to produce phrases which are both metro- nomic and vertical in their effect upon the listener. The reason for this is too literal an interpretation on the part of the player of the function and intent of the bar-line. At best, the bar-line is an artificial device used for metrical convenience.

For example, if the players are dealing with an eight- measure musical sentence, with perhaps a comma after the fourth measure, they must be taught to keep the phrase in motion throughout its entire length and not convert the comma into a period. The cell-like enclosures between bar-lines may trick the player into subdividing the sentence into small units and so destroy the con- tinuity of musical thought. Nuance The principal problem to be faced under this heading is how to widen the effective dynamic range of the orches- tra.

The normal habitat of the amateur orchestra is some- where in the vicinity of forte. It has no visible difficulty in rising to an uncontrolled fortissimo and, if sufficiently urged, will now and then subside to a reluctant, and temporary, mezzo-forte. The softer dynamics lie in terra incognita. The first step is to bring the fortissimo under control and to curb its wild abandon. The worst offenders in this regard are the percussion, brass, and woodwind — in about that order.

The players of these instruments seem to hold the theory that the way to produce a stunning fortissimo is to beat or blow their instruments out of shape. Arturo Toscanini is quoted as having said that there is a point beyond which music ceases to be music and becomes mere noise. The conductor must call a halt every time a fortissimo gets out of hand if he is to eradicate this basic fault. The second step in widening the dynamic range, the achievement of a true piano and pianissimo, is much more difficult and will require much concentrated drill.

Any amateur orchestra can play loudly, but only a well- trained one can play softly. The strings must be taught to exploit fully the different tone qualities which may be obtained between the bridge and the finger board at varying distances from the former. For example, the softer the dynamic, the nearer the bow to the finger board and conversely. Since there is a universal tendency to play always on the outside edge of the bow-hair, the string players must be made aware of the connection between the dynamic and the amount of bow-hair in con- tact with the string, and also with the speed with which the bow is drawn.

In general, these two elements in tone production for strings vary directly with the dynamic. The function of the vibrato is also not fully understood by the amateur player. He needs to be taught, for ex- ample, to employ a narrower and less rapid vibrato in soft passages than he does in loud passages. The winds and brasses must be coached to have as much breath behind the tone in a piano as in a forte, but to control with the greatest care the amount used. The tone pro- duced must be soft, but it must not be characterless or flabby. This leads directly to another point which must be made in regard to the piano and pianissimo orchestral tone in general: Such a tone has neither beauty, depth, nor carry- ing power.

But the battle is only half won when the conductor succeeds in teaching the proper technique for playing softly. He must stop the drill constantly to thwart the letting up of concentration which produces a gradual crescendo where none is indicated, and must be prepared to go over and over soft passages until the physical and mental discipline necessary to produce the desired result has become second nature to the players. It is far more demanding to play piano and pianissimo than it is to play forte and fortissimo. The sudden piano and sudden forte present another type of problem to the amateur player.

Only the most literal interpretation of this effective device will be suc- cessful, and yet the tendency is to anticipate it by means of a gradual decrescendo or crescendo, as the case may be, which completely destroys its impact on the ear. The players must be taught to keep the dynamic up or down until the last note of the preceding passage has been played, and to establish the new dynamic on the first note of the new phrase.

The physical and emotional effectiveness of a cre- scendo or decrescendo is reduced if the gradual change of dynamic is poorly spaced along the indicated number of measures or beats. The tendency of the amateur or- chestra is to make the change too soon and so to reach the zenith or nadir of the phrase prematurely. This is particularly apparent where the composer has indicated that the dynamic change is to be made poco a poco and has spread the effect over seven, eight, or more measures.

In a crescendo, for example, the brass and percussion should lag behind the strings and woodwind at first, saving their power for the final few measures and the climax itself. If all the sections progress at the same dynamic rate, the brass and percus- sion will soon overpower the strings and woodwind and utterly destroy the orchestral balance. Even though this common procedure is guaranteed to bring down the house, it is aesthetically indefensible. Since the score and parts seldom make any differentiation, the conductor will have to exercise sound musical judgment in coaching each section to perform its proper function in the over-all orchestral pattern.

In a decrescendo, conversely, the brass and percussion should precede the strings and woodwind in cutting down the dynamic: The physical technique of a crescendo in the winds, brasses, and percussion is generally understood and suc- cessfully executed, but there are many possibilities in string technique which are seldom fully exploited. The position of the bow may be changed from close to the finger board to a point as near the bridge as possible without producing a sul ponticello effect.

This converts the string tone from soft diffusion to sharp intensity. Also, the width and rapidity of the vibrato may gradually be increased to advantage. This entire procedure works in reverse for a decrescendo. Finally, care must be taken to see that the non-climac- tic crescendo-decrescendo within a phrase returns to the dynamic level at which it began. The problem with ama- teur players is to obtain a decrescendo to match the crescendo, for they will seldom return voluntarily to the point of dynamic departure.

Failure to obtain this will result in a step-wise increase in sound with each suc- cessive execution of this effect. Emotion The techniques just outlined are but the incidental concomitants of interpretation, the trimming on the tree. If the conductor has done his work efficiently in the de- tailed rehearsals, the orchestra will have acquired tech- nical confidence as its knowledge of the printed page has grown.

But again technique is not enough. The con- ductor must now inspire in his players the same feeling for beauty, line, mood, and rhythm that characterizes his own conception of the music.