Nés à minuit Tome 2 Soupçons (French Edition)

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One of the issues that return in almost all of these letters is the important question of authorisation to examine ancient monuments on Ottoman territory. Moreover, Cumont had already been in contact with Osman Hamdy bey on the occasion of his journey in Armenia Minor and the Pontus region in Osman Hamdy bey was a champion of the protection of the ancient heritage of the regions covered by the Ottoman Empire. After becoming director of the Ottoman Imperial Museum in , in , acting on the order of sultan Abdulhamid ii, he promulgated a regulation that assigned every object found during excavations as property of the Imperial Museum This official procedure included another written request which, according to the Belgian diplomat, would be referred by the Ministry of Internal Affairs to the sultan, who would issue an official permit.

However, as his correspondent warned Cumont, this course of action would take considerable time and the scholar would not receive proper authorisation before April Since the second half of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman government was developing a firmer grip on its cultural heritage, which it had felt slipping away through the hands of Western adventurers and scholars The regulations had become more strict, but having taken the necessary steps, at the end of March, Franz Cumont was ready to leave for the Levant.

Journey to the Orient. Franz Cumont published catalogues of his collection 70 and advised him in his letters on objects to purchase to enrich the collections. Their correspondence is one between friends and often very personal With the postcard he sent from there — featuring a view of the Sphinx and one of the Gizeh pyramids — Cumont clearly wishes to convey his impressions of the Oriental and exotic culture in which he finds himself to his friend: The little humouristic detail evokes the exotic nature the oriental city had for the occidental traveler and his correspondent.

Travelers complained about the intensification of tourism and Western influence, especially in the cities of the Orient, already visited by too many to be fresh and inspiring.

The use of this rather ideologically charged opposition reflects a culturally and socially diversified approach to the Orient. Before travelling to Northern Syria, Cumont took time for a trip along the coastline of the Lebanon and to Jerusalem.

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The day before his departure to Aleppo, he wrote to his friend for the last time for more than a month, his tone again dominantly humouristic: The front of the postcard features three pictures, the French captions which read: The images demonstrate the interest occidental tourists had in the exotic nature of the Orientals, their traditional dress, their riding animals, their eating habits sitting on the ground! But instead of commenting upon any real encounter with Orientals, Cumont made up an Oriental adventure to amuse his friend Cumont arrived in Aleppo on the first of May.

After a short excursion in the surroundings, he returned there and set off for his expedition on the 10th of May. In the Footsteps of Julian. His chief military ambition however, was to invade and defeat Persia in the long-standing feud between the two great empires Cumont meticulously recorded the exact route of his expedition in four little booklets he always seems to have had on hand.

Three of them are dayto-day diaries. The first dated entry is on May 6th; the notebooks end on the 1st of June. In addition, there is a small diary of the year In villages, inscribed ancient blocks or slabs were often reused as building material, and on occasion Cumont mentioned the difficulties he had in obtaining permission to study the inscriptions: Although Cumont most probably was accompanied by other assistants, the only travel companion whom he mentioned is his guide.

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Whether this guide acted as a dragoman, or whether there was an actual dragoman present aside from the guide, is therefore unclear However, even this guide appears only three times, twice because he gave Cumont information on ruins they passed and once because he killed two snakes. The Results of the Expedition. Most of them had already appeared previously in various journals.

As an appendix to this. However, Franz Cumont did not only take impressions and notes back to Europe I will return to these in the last section.

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Another type of result from this expedition consists of the considerable amount of ancient Oriental artefacts the archaeologist bought to enrich the collections of Belgian museums, as will be discussed in the following section. Eastern Artefacts in Western Museums. The transfer of non-western archaeological material to western institutions has been the object of repeated critique and is up to this day an important issue within the international context of museum policies and academic scholarship on the history of museums and collections In fact, from the second half of the nineteenth century onward, more and more archaeological missions were dispatched to the Orient Key players were the great colonial powers of Europe, France and Britain, but also, especially toward the end of the century, the German Empire and the United States.

Moreover, the competition between the colonial powers, their institutes and museums in the struggle for economic, political and scientific influence in the Ottoman Empire was an important motivating factor In this way many artefacts and manuscripts,. Furthermore, many objects were sold by Orientals to Western travellers and archaeologists and the traffic of antiquities flourished. It was also explicitly promoted by Jean Capart, e. The Belgian Egyptologist greatly enriched the Egyptian collection of the Royal Museums and as curator in chief, also from this social and educational perspective, revolutionized the organization of the museum.

Of course, this budget had to be spent cautiously, as the sellers would try to get the most out of the transactions. This diary, used as a notebook, features meticulously recorded lists of all artefacts bought, each with their respective price. Thus, for example, we can see that two terracotta fragments from the Syrian village of Terib cost him as little as 3 francs, while he paid francs for one of his more pricy acquisitions, a relief representing the Egyptian god Tutu as a sphinx, from the Fayyum and dated in the Roman period, purchased by Cumont in Cairo Cumont mentioned a Farah in Tyre, most probably a relative of Ferdinand Farah, with.

This could be the epitaph of Abdimilk of the Royal Museums in Brussels However, Cumont regularly donated pieces he bought during his travels to the museum. From his Syrian tour he brought, for example, a marble torso of Venus, purchased in Cairo Charles Clermont-Ganneau, the French diplomat and archaeologist to whom the. The metaphor recurs in a letter by Victor Chapot, who congratulates Cumont in the following terms: Once he even congratulated himself that a seller had greatly undervalued a piece At one point, he added a comment to a description of tombs that had been violated: Finally, I will investigate in more detail which images Cumont retained from his journey and how he conveyed them to his readers in Europe.

In his cultural critique on the Western conceptions of the East, Orientalism,. Edward Said assigned an important part to Orient travellers and residents in the construction and reiteration of mythical images of the Orient to a Western public. According to Said, whether they were literary authors, like Flaubert or Nerval, or scientists like Sir William Jones, in their writings they all betrayed the same superior attitude towards the Orient that reinforced and helped construct the European colonialist idea that the passive East could not rule itself. Furthermore, observing the Orient through their Western eyes, they emphasized its strange, exotic nature, its Otherness.

Firstly, Cumont was fascinated by the remnants of the ancient Orient yet took but little notice of the contemporary Orient, an attitude which he shared with many archaeologists and orientalists of his time.

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Secondly, the idea that Middle East would profit from Western rule returns in his writings. It is clear that, when Cumont scribbled his private and on-the-spot observations in his notebooks, his focus was on the exact description of the route he was following and of the monuments he encountered. However, he did have eyes for his surroundings. Cumont was very impressed by the Syrian landscapes, which he describes almost constantly in his notebooks, now alluding to the desolateness of the scenery, then relishing the wide variety of colours he discerns: However, when it comes to the people he saw and met on his journey, Cumont did not seem to find them interesting enough to describe them elaborately.

Twice the headdress and jewellery of women villagers are given particular attention:.

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On the occasion of crossing the Euphrates, an adventure upon which the scholar reported quite elaborately in his notebook — he almost lost his trunk in the violent river — Cumont described the boatmen: Even in the little notebook Cumont used when he traveled along the coastline of the Lebanon, this attitude is present.

This excursion was not a part of the real expedition and in that sense a leisure trip, but again Cumont almost exclusively commented on ancient ruins, artefacts and his route. However, at one point during this excursion Cumont commented, quite out of the blue, without reference to an actual event or person: While Cumont did refer to this same mudir. Further references to close personal meetings with Orientals are rather sporadic. As will become clear, in this passage Cumont placed himself within a European tradition of paternalism towards the Middle East One cannot help but feeling that here Cumont was championing Western interference, if not Western rule, in Syria Victor Langlois , orientalist and specialist of ancient Armenian numismatics, who travelled through Asia Minor with the support of the French government in , begins his travel account as follows: Two important instruments of the Roman rule were the army and the law, which were the two domains in which according to Cumont the Romans surpassed the ancient Orientals, as I discussed in the first section.

The contrast between the richness which Syria knew in Roman times and the poverty Cumont encountered returns more. The Exotic Orient Experienced. Cumont explicitly drew attention to the strange and exotic nature of the Orient in a discussion of a bas-relief representing two goddesses on a camel, the Oriental animal par excellence. In French, the word has indeed a very negative connotation if applied to a person.

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A few pages later, Cumont repeated more or less the same idea, but added an important reflection upon it: Not only was Cumont aware of his Western bias, it is his own travel experience, his own encounter with the Orient , that helped him understand ancient religious practice better. Cumont seems to have reduced the historical distance, projecting the present he saw on the past he studied.

In his notebooks, Cumont often described the impressive river: The gender aspect of this passage is difficult to render in English, but might be of some interest as Cumont remained a bachelor throughout his life and devoted himself to the study of ancient religions. Ten years after the facts, the long, adventurous and probably rather lonely journey. In addition to pages worth of published scientific work, we have at our disposal a considerable amount of private travel notes, a substantial body of letters sent to Cumont by both academic experts and political institutions, and even postcards written by Cumont himself.

As I have demonstrated in this paper, firstly, this dossier sheds precious light on practical issues concerning the practice of archaeology in the Ottoman Empire around the turn of the nineteenth century, such as how to obtain authorisation to study monuments. In this way, these personal documents help place the scientific traveller and his work in the historical and social context, while giving us valuable information on the context itself.

This dossier on Franz Cumont permits us to study the persona of the European archaeologist or scientific traveller as an intermediary figure between the Orient and the Occident, bringing back bits and pieces, artefacts and images, of the Orient to the Western world. The dossier touches upon the interest of the Belgian state in the acquisition of oriental artefacts and the practice of the archaeological market in the East. Secondly, the dossier allows us to compare the experiences of the scientific traveller in the Orient and how they are expressed in three different writing contexts.

In his observations of his surroundings, both humour and rather positive but commonplace remarks prevail. I wish to thank Corinne Bonnet and Danny Praet for their numerous and most precious observations. I also thank my three anonymous reviewers for their highly useful suggestions and corrections. Bibliotheca Cumontiana, which includes Scripta Maiora, Scripta Minora seven thematical volumes containing a selection of articles by Cumont and Inedita.

French , , , , English in the United States: The Discovery of Religion in the Age of Reason,. Lannoy, Het christelijke mysterie. De relatie tussen het vroege Christendom en de heidense mysterieculten in het denken van Alfred Loisy en Franz Cumont, in de context van de modernistische crisis, Ghent, PhD dissertation, Cumont, Les religions orientales, op. I refer to Franz.

On Otto Seeck, cf. Other widely read authors with similar views were Arthur de Gobineau and Ernest Renan. Cumont cites Ernest Renan,. Maurice Olender, The Languages of Paradise.

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This link between freedmen and Syrians can also be found in Juvenal, Sat. When discussing the Syrian slaves in Rome Fr. Here, Cumont is referring to Syrian merchants. Cumont is referring to Syrian slaves. Bonnet, La correspondance scientifique, op. Souvenirs de voyage, Paris, E. Plon et Cie, The founding of important archaeological museums in the Orient in the nineteenth century, e. Lamertin, Studia Pontica, 2.