Parménides [o de las ideas] (Spanish Edition)

Smyth says these were "the first Hellenes of whom the Romans had knowledge. There is no telling how the Romans really latched onto this name. South or east of Greece, we find names that derive from , Ionia , where Greek philosophy began. In Egyptian, we find. The Egyptians normally didn't write vowels, but we have Demotic writings of this name with the group, which looks like it is used for the long vowel "i," especially when this often at the end of words, making adjectives, just as Arabic does with.

This is confirmed when we get a version later in Coptic , , Weinin , which fits the consonsants and that vowel [ note ]. And, far off in India, in Sanskrit "Greek" was Yavana ,. Yavanapura , , the "City of the Greeks," seems to have been the name for Alexandria , Egypt. Curiously, would later be used even for Muslims, after they invaded India in Ionic is one of the basic dialects of Greek, and the name is also associated with one of the canonical styles of architecture, the Ionic Order , which is more delicate than the Doric but still less elaborate than the Corinthian.

The consonant "h" had simply been lost in Ionic, as it is in Modern Greek. On the map we see the ten original cities of Ionia, plus Smyrna, an Aeolic city that later joined them. The names of early Greek philosophers can be associated with several of these cities. The Mediaeval Greeks were thus, to themselves and to others, Romans. Historians may mention this, but -- except for Anthony Kaldellis -- they never follow the usage and appear not to take it seriously -- Julius Caesar, now that's a Roman , not people like Justinian who codified Roman Law or Nicephorus Phocas see epigraph.

The Empire was itself Romania , in Latin, or , in Greek, names used since at least the 4th century but generally not mentioned by historians, not even Byzantinists except Kaldellis. Once there were German Emperors, beginning with Charlemagne , in the West, legitimized by the Pope , they began to think of themselves as "Romans" as in the Sanctum Imperium Romanum , the "Holy Roman Empire" and to dismiss the Emperors in Constantinople as "Greeks" or even insultingly as Graeculi , "Greeklings" or "Little Greeks" singular Graeculus.

When they felt like being more diplomatic, however, they might use a name transcribed from back into Latin, as Romaei singular Romaeus or Romei singular Romeus. The Emperor of the Romans could not really object to being called the Imperator Romaeorum. Yes, Romeo, as in Romeo and Juliet. Had Romeo been to Rome? Or had his name already become detached from this usage?

Because of the play, "Romeo" now usually means a kind of lover. Isaac Angelus , more insolently, styled Frederick the First 'chief prince of Alemannia. Such a distinction was available in Greek, with for the City and for the Empire. The real confusion here is in James Bryce, since there never was a "Thracian Province of Romania"; and Byrce, apparently ignorant of the Mediaeval meaning of "Romania," is thinking of his contemporary Turkish province of Rumelia , , as the descendant of "Romania.

Bryce seems to think that Frederick is insulting Issac by using "Romania" in the way that Isaac has used "Alemannia," when that would not have been the case. Wallis Budge gives us two hieroglypic and two Coptic writings of "Greek. Faulker [], and Bill Petty [], do not have a word for "Greek," probably because it is from Late Egyptian. The phonetic value of the "eye" glyph, , is with some kind of semi-vowel no one is quite sure what the value of the phoneme is and an "r. The first hieroglyphic writing ends with determinatives for "foreign" and "land. The Coptic writings both clarify and obscure matters.

The first one, , is clear enough. The "ou" digraph, as with Greek or the French "ou" in the same position , is read as a "w. Our last clue here is that the double "n" in the hieroglyphic writing does indeed mean a double "n," separated by the vowel "i. We have two extra vowels here. What is going on?

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If they meaning anything, it must mean that we have more than one vowel, with a separation by a glottal stop, glide, or something. And the "eei" may have a diphthong value that originally had in Greek but then lost. The third "e," in turn, may suggest the role of the glottal stop in the second hieroglyphic writing. I am tempted to suggest a new, combined hieroglyphic writing, as ; but, really, the matter must remain obscure.

Note 2 Although widely distributed around the Mediterranean basin, Mediterranean climates are actually rather rare in the world. The most extensive area is the south coast of Australia. None of these places ended up with the other geographical and cultural attributes that put Greece and the Mediterranean in such historically important roles. Return to text The Origin of Philosophy: Be your own boss. Don't get stuck behind a desk. We don't know how good Greek traders would have looked olive oil in the hair is not fashionable at the moment , but everything else certainly fits, and success did follow.

Beldar Conehead takes Sinbad's advice. He is self-employed as a driving instructor, where he is not behind a desk, and he only takes cash. It is not clear whether this is a legitimate, licensed business which pays taxes. Beldar's attempt at aquiring a stolden identity earlier in the movie has fallen through, and we see no attempt to duplicate its advantages. Lichtheim argues rather awkwardly that the text is intended as a "satire" because the "scribal profession" never would have harbored "a contempt for manual labor so profound as to be unrelieved by humor.

However, one does not have to have either contempt or respect to recognize that manual labor in an ancient society, with nothing in the way of modern medicine and when the average life-span was only about 35 years, was hard, merciless, and ravaging. A text that begins "I have seen many beatings" must be expected to be offering a sober caution, if indeed there were "many beatings," which, as it happens, is undeniable.

Why there is any particular dignity in getting beaten by tax collectors, or why a scribal writer would want to satirize it, is more than a little mysterious. No, the concern for the dignity of labor here is modern and editorial, if not Marxist, and the intention of the author of the text is clearly the very serious recommendation of scribal life, attended with reading, writing, and authority, over the hard labor and social subordination of other professions. Note 5 The origin of the word "Phoenician" is a matter of interest.

Krahmalkov, Brill, Leiden, , p. Latin Poeni for Cathaginians and the adjective Punicus look like they come directly from the Phoenician words. Phoinix , , in Greek is the noun, "Phoenician. The word could be seen as having a Greek adjectival ending, -ik- , and we might think the way to analyze it is as coming from an adjective Phoin-ik-os.

But this will not do.

Parménides/Teeteto/Sofista/Político by Plato

Phoinix is a Third Declension noun, and we must analyze it as Phoinik-s , in the nominative, as it is Phoinik-os in the genitive. A Greek adjective of Phoinix is actually Phoinikikos , , where the adjectival ending -ik-os goes onto the root Phoinik-. And we already see po-ni-ke in Mycenaean Greek. We thus must account for the extra consonant in the root. Phoinix may actually be a borrowing from Egyptian. The Fn portion of the root, of course, looks like it would correspond to the word in Phoenician, which may leave us wondering: If the Egyptian word was originally borrowed from Phoenician, where did the Egyptians get the third consonant?

As it happens, Phoenician phonology originally had a consonant kh , which was subsequently lost [Krahmalkov, p. It is possible that an earlier stage of the Phoenician language had that consonant in its root -- three consonsant roots are the norm in Semitic Languages -- which is where the Egyptians got it. It is also possible, of course, that the Greeks got to the Phoenicians early enough that they also got their third consonant directly from the Phoenician word; but since the consonant is not attested in written Phoenician, and the Egyptians were dealing with the Phoenicians two thousand years before the Greeks were when Phoenician was not written , they would have been in a better position to pick up long lost consonants.

While is puzzling for the extra consonant in the root, it is also used to mean "purple, purple-red, crimson," i. However, I don't understand the morphology of this alteration either. An infixed "i" may be part of some regular word formation, but I am unfamiliar with it. There are problems either way. The geographic backbone of Phoenicia, Mount Lebanon, had the same name then as now: Lebanon Lbnn -- rendered by the Egyptians as Rmnn ,.

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This also became a Greek word for Egyptian papyrus , otherwise , probably traded by Byblos, and so, more commonly as biblos , a word for "book," or biblion ,. Indeed, no papyrus grew in Phoenicia, so the Greeks, at least initially, certainly knew about the material as it was provided by Phoenician traders. Later, the Greeks went to Egypt and could buy their own papyrus, but the words of Phoenician original persisted.

Note 7 The initial slope of the pyramid was not really too steep, at 54 o 27'44", even though the pyramid was finished at 43 o 22'. The angle of the Great Pyramid of Khufu would soon be 51 o 50'40"; and the pyramid of Khafre would have an angle of 53 o 10'. Instead the Bent Pyramid suffered from problems with the developing technology: It was this combination of a lack of good mortar, carelessly laid blocks, and, most importantly, the unstable desert surface, that caused the structural problems. This was solved by flattening off the slope, resulting in the famous "bent" shape of the pyramid.

Seneferu seems to have been displeased enough to order a complete new pyramid built, which was subsequently finished as the first true pyramid, the "Northern" pyramid at Dahshur. The photo of the upper chamber of the Bent Pyramid is from I. Note 8 Fans of Star Trek may recognize the word "archon" from the classic Star Trek episode "The Return of the Archons," 22 in the original series, which aired February 9, The "archons" referred to were the crew of the starship Archon , which had been captured and the crew "absorbed" by the mind-controlling, totalitarian regime of a planet ruled by a computer impersonating an ancient legislator named "Landru" rather like Sparta's Lycurgus.

The episode ends with Captain Kirk in one of his classic moments arguing the computer into a nervous breakdown, freeing the planet. Although the individualistic message of this episode, as of much of the original Star Trek , is unmistakable, note later tendencies of the series, as discussed in " The Fascist Ideology of Star Trek. Synesius of Balagrae c.

Terzaghi, Synesii Cyrenensis opuscula , Rome, The kings were part of a tradition , usually hereditary, and had significant religious duties. A tyrant, on the other hand, came to power through secular political means, often by force, and they maintained their position by force, popularity, or both.

Thus, "tyrant" did not originally mean a criminal; but the behavior of tyrants rapidly began to give the word the meaning it would have today, commiting crimes that often were also seen as offenses against religion; and philosophers like Plato analyzed the tyrant as possessing an immoral sort of personality type.

The difference between traditional kings and the tyrants was nicely expressed by Fustel de Coulanges: When the kings had been everywhere overthrown, and the aristocracy had become supreme, the people did not content themselves with regretting the monarchy; they aspired to restore it under a new form. In Greece, during the sixth century, they succeeded generally in procuring leaders; not wishing to call them kings, because this title implied the idea of religious functions, and could only be borne by sacerdotal families, they called them tyrants.

Hence comes the advice of Periander to Thrasybulus, his docking of the prominent cornstalks, meaning that the prominent citizens [ ] must always be made away with. Silently, walking through the fields outside Miletus with Periander's representative, Thryasybulus demonstrated his technique by cutting off the tops of the grainstalks that stood up higher than the others.

Thus, anyone who might become a focus for opposition to a tyrant should be eliminated. Aristotle has turned around who gave the advice to whom. Of course, it didn't much matter. Periander was also famous for murdering his wife and other crimes. Greek tyrants didn't always kill their opposition, both because exile was easy and effective, and in ancient religion one always worried about venegeful spirits causing trouble a motif familiar in Japanese history that recently has spawned novels and movies.

The most striking case may have involved Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos d. He had to deal with one of the most prominent citizens of Samos, and also one of the most prominent persons of the age, the philosopher Pythagoras. The result, of course, was that around Pythagoras fled, all the way to Croton in Italy. There, his danger as a political leader was revealed when his followers took over the city and he became a tyrant himself. Since the Pythagorean community banned beans, Bertrand Russell joked that Pythagoras was soon overthrown because the masses hungered after beans.

So Pythagoras had to flee again, to nearby Metapontum, where he lived out his life. While tyrants were never called kings, we sometimes find people we would consider kings called tyrants. Why this is so may be evident from the story. Oedipus does not inherit the throne of Thebes but obtains it by passing the test of answering the riddle of the sphinx -- although he happens to be the one who killed the previous king, not realizing that this was actually his father.

Trouble continues as he unknowingly marries the king's widow, his own mother. The breaches of religion involved the blood pollution of murder, and incest soon resulted in ill fortune, sent by the gods, afflicting the city. Thus, in many ways Oedipus did not enjoy the sanction of religion as a ruler, making him more tyrant than king.

After the death of Alexander, his generals soon claimed kingship themselves, as the "Successors," , the Diadochi. This did not have the same religious sanction as traditional kings, but the precedent of Alexander himself created a new form of this, that the Hellenistic Kings are themselves gods. Note 9 Although very many ships were lost at sea in the pre-modern period, taking crew, cargo, and profit with them, the returns on a successful voyage could be astounding. Roberts, Oxford, , p.

The profit seems to have come largely from a single cargo of cloves. A key statement in the article runs thus: Coins stamped with images of animals or rulers, guaranteeing the metal's value, first appeared in the kingdom of Lydia, in what's now Turkey, around 2, years ago. Soon after, cities and states in Greece, Persia, India and China began to strike their own coins. From the start, coins funded armies and wars of conquest.

In the process, coins became legal tender for all sorts of transactions. Marketplaces were a result of the sytem, not its cause, revisionists argue. Ionia , were traders, not conquerors, and their coins were not introduced to fund, and did not "from the start" fund, "armies and wars of conquest. And the Persian Empire , let alone earlier states, like Assyria , was created before this innovation had any chance to have an effect on its practices. The coinage, for instance, of Darius , postdates the creation of the Empire by Cyrus and Cambyses , who were more or less contemporaneous with the introduction of coinage.

So the expression above, "soon after," conceals the lack of actual connection, and the mismatched dates, between the two phenomena. So, indeed, markets came first, not state funding of armies and wars. This is especially noteworthy with China , which has been incautiously included in the list of conquerors. Traditional China never used more than one kind of coin, the small brass "cash" coin with a square hole in the center. This was never worth much, and it was intentionally made that way, as a convenience, not for merchants or businesses, but for the daily, small transactions of ordinary people.

The cash coins were worth so little that later, when the Spanish silver dollar was introduced, it was rated as worth cash. This all was because Confucians did not trust merchants or businessmen, who were left to provide their own appropriate medium of exchange in silver ingots. Gold was a state monopoly, precisely to fund "armies and wars of conquest," although Confucians actually didn't care much for those activities either, which left China relatively helpless in the face of conquest by Manchuria.

And there never were gold coins, even when the Manchu Qing Dynasty began adopting Western coinage. The hole in the coins was conveniently used to string together 50, , or whatever at a time. So, whether it is Mr. Bower or the "revisionists" -- with only David Graeber [ Debt: The First 5, Years , Melville House, ], actually given with a reference in the article -- they seem to be seriously out of their reckoning when it comes to the history of money, or even just history.

We might wonder why. Does David Graeber have some kind of agenda? Well, the "revisionists" seem to reject a basic principle of liberal democracy, which is that "governments are instituted among men to secure these rights," i. After all, when the Phoenicians landed on a distant shore and set about trading with the natives, they were operating in a State of Nature. When markets were later governed by laws, this was to prevent the abuses that might occur in such situations, i. But if money derives from functions of state, and not from the natural conditions of markets, then the State has ontological priority.

The "revisionists" may believe this because they are Hegelians and statists, for whom government and the state are more real than individuals, have natural authority over them, and which condescend to dispense rights to citizens, for its benefit, not for theirs. This is the paradigm of leftist politics from the 20th century into the 21st. It is not clear from this one article if that is what is going on, but suspicion is warranted in the increasingly totalitarian modern academy. Note 11 Some people like to think that the wealth of Athens derived from the Laurion silver mines. But this is to make a fundamental mistake about the nature of wealth -- an instance of " Cargo Cult " economics.

Money is worthless without something to buy. Even gold, without commerce, may as well be used, as the Egyptians did, to make or cover coffins. If goods are produced, then it doesn't matter who has the gold or silver, it will run, like water, to the producers. A prime example of that is the great flood of metal from the silver mines of Mexico and Peru, starting in the 16th century, which all went to Spain. Since Spain was not a commercial or manufacturing power, it simply spent the money. That helped make it a predominant power for over a century, but the money, when spent, then went to the commercial states, like the Netherlands and England.

The Netherlands , small as it was, then demonstrated a new order of economic strength by successfully revolting against Spain. All that all of the silver had done to the Spanish economy was to produce a raging inflation -- always the result of too much money chasing too few goods. Athens suffered no such embarrassments. It could absorb its own silver, and much, much more, like the "tribute" from the League of Delos , because of the strength of its own economy.

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Note 12 This is rather like when the "Psychic Friends Network," which dispensed paranormal advice by phone, filed for bankruptcy early in , the news stories asked "Didn't they see it coming? Note 13 The Greek historian of philosophy Diogenes Laertius, refers to a lost work, that of Hieronymus of Rhodes, crediting Thales with "measuring the pyramids by their shadow, having observed the time when our own shadow is equal to our height" G.

Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers , Cambridge, , p. This would be a little awkward, since one's own height would have to be ascertained and the shadow measured by it. Since the gnomon -- a stick in the ground -- was in use at the time to observe the path of the sun, using one would be considerably easier and just as simple. Note 14 The virtue of cuneiform writing, incised on clay tablets, which otherwise would seem messy and cumbersome, is that it will not decay or burn.

When the Assyrian cities were burned and looted c. Egyptian papyrus, although far more convenient as a writing material, decays and burns easily, leaving us with a pitiful fragment of Egyptian literature. Surviving papyri are largely from tombs in the desert, preserved by the dry conditions; but Egyptian libraries were not built in the desert.

Much Egyptian literature, indeed, has not survived on papyrus at all but on the ostraca , the fragments of pots and chips of stone, that were used by boys no girls, by the way in scribal schools -- they were denied valuable papyrus for the humble task of copying their lessons. Note 15 Kissinger should have known better than to have so underestimated the strength of America, since he certainly would have known how Napoleon had foolishly dismissed England as "a nation of shopkeepers" -- where the shopkeepers built a navy that sank Napoleon's, and then carried him to exile on St.

Brecht, one of the Ten, nevertheless testified freely and impressed the Committee as a "friendly witness.

Parménides/Teeteto/Sofista/Político (Diálogos V)

He defected to East Germany, where he retained a residence the rest of his life. This counter-example to the western intellectuals who "voted with their feet" by staying in Capitalist countries is countered in turn by the deal that Brecht made with the East Germans. He kept an Austrian passport, which enabled him to leave East Germany and travel, as few other East Germans could. He kept his money in Swiss bank accounts, where no Communist regime had access to it. And he kept a West German publisher, who paid the considerable royalties from his works into his Swiss bank accounts.

It also now appears that some of his works had been plagiarized from younger, especially female, associates. The hypocrisy and cynicism of Brecht's behavior and arrangements is almost charming, but it certainly explodes the notion that he defected to East Germany so that he could enjoy the benefits of living under actual Communism. He managed to avoid all the disabilities that would have applied to real East Germans, who would be safely imprisoned by the Berlin Wall in Brecht, we might say, added insult to injury by congratulating the East German government when it put down the uprising by "the workers," as it happened.

Brecht was thus the perfect leftist intellectual, enjoying the freedom himself that he was happy to see denied to others. We can credit Parmenides with two major innovations: To the Greeks, this simply meant logical argumentation. This represents a break with a characteristic of mythpoeic thought that had persisted through the first Greek philosophers, namely the fourth characteristic, that myth is self-justifying. As handed down to us, earlier philosophers, like Anaximander and Heracltius, simply assert what is true. They do not, to our knowledge, offer arguments.

Where they begin to notice their own disagreements, there is not much they can say about each other except that they are right and the others are wrong. Heraclitus is supposed to have said: The meaning of the word "dialectic" from which is derived "dialogue" now has drifted far from its original sense, because of special technical meanings attributed to it by philosophers like Kant , Hegel , and Marx. Also, the etymology of the word is commonly misunderstood, as when people say that a "dialogue" involves two people because di- means "two. Dia , , is a Greek preposition that means "through.

The meaning of the word "metaphysics" is also commonly misconstrued. On television or in New Age literature one thinks of Shirley MacLaine and her books like Out on a Limb -- made into a TV movie in , one is liable to hear that the word "metaphysics" means "beyond" , meta the "physical" , physics. Thus "metaphysics" would be about spiritual things, God, the soul, ghosts, etc. Unfortunately, the Greek preposition meta does not mean "beyond"; it means "after.

Metaphysics was originally the title of a book , by Aristotle. It got that name by accident.

When Aristotle died in , none of his mature thought had been published. All that remained of his teachings at his school, the Lyceum , were his lecture notes, sometimes even his students' lecture notes. Before long, his family and students decided that something should be done about that, and the material was gradually organized, divided, and published. After the Physics physika , "natural things," from physis , "nature" was published, however, it was not obvious what to call the next book, since it had material about God and a number of other things in it.

Rather than picking one topic, the book simply began to be called the "After the Physics" , Meta ta Physika. So the word "metaphysics" really doesn't mean anything etymologically. It would basically mean whatever was in Aristotle's Metaphysics. What was basic in the Metaphysics was something for which a word did not exist in Greek philosophy. A modern word has been coined from Greek, however: This is literally what Parmenides did, as will be seen below -- to talk about Being.

More generally, "ontology" is the theory about what is real. This is why the popular meaning of "metaphysics" is incorrect. Any theory that is an answer to the question, "What is real? That is true whether one answers "spirits" or even "matter. Indeed, in a Physics class, little attention is going to paid to the question, "What is real? There are other disciplines that later as in Aristotle fall into metaphysics: The modern equivalent of the latter would be philosophy of mind. Cosmology has now largely been absorbed by astronomy and physics, but some residual metaphysical issues remain, such as the nature of space and time.

These two innovations of Parmenides are presented in the form of an epic poem, the Way of Truth. Fragments of it survive in quotations by later writers, some of them much later: Proclus lived in the 5th century AD, Simplicius in the 6th. So, a thousand years after Parmenides, Simplicius supplies us with extensive quotations, because he himself had difficulty finding complete texts of Parmenides. Those are now lost, but Simplicius remains. Raven and Scott Austin [Fragment 1, from Sextus Empiricus and Simplicius] The steeds that carried me took me as far as my heart could desire, when once they had brought me and set me on the renowned way of the goddess, who leads the man who knows through every town.

Parmenides may be the first Greek philosopher to offer a careful argument, derived from and based on reason, for his views. Nevertheless, he wrote a traditional poetic invocation of a Muse-like goddess for his philosophical poem. Thus we look back to the inspiration that the poets, and perhaps the first philosophers, claimed as the authority for their statements, even as we look forward to the appeal to logic made by all later philosophers. The goddess remains unnamed, as happens in Homer, quite commonly in ancient religion, and even in the case of Socrates in the Apology.

And the axle [of the chariot], blazing in the socket, was making the holes in the naves sing -- for it was urged round by well-turned wheels at each end -- while the daughters of the Sun, hasting to convey me into the light, threw back the veils from off their faces and left the abode of night. There are the gates of the ways of Night and Day, fitted above with a lintel and below with a threshold of stone.

They themselves, high in the air, are closed by mighty doors, and avenging Justice controls the double bolts. Her did the maidens entreat with gentle words and cunningly persuade to unfasten without demur the bolted bar from the gates. Then, when the doors were thrown back, they disclosed a wide opening, when their brazen posts, fitted with rivets and nails, swung in turn on their hinges.

Straight through them, on the broad way, did the maidens guide the horses and the car. And the goddess greeted me kindly, and took my right hand in hers, and spoke to me these words: It is no ill chance, but right and justice, that has sent you forth to travel on this way. The kindle Paperwhite also has a 6 inches big screen which comes with a backlight. It is specially designed to help you read in the dark.

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