Sexual Strategy (Black Lace)

Aphids can be easily killed by unfavourable weather, such as late spring freezes.

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Most aphids have little protection from predators. Some species interact with plant tissues forming a gall , an abnormal swelling of plant tissue. Aphids can live inside the gall, which provides protection from predators and the elements. A number of galling aphid species are known to produce specialised "soldier" forms, sterile nymphs with defensive features which defend the gall from invasion.

Although aphids cannot fly for most of their life cycle, they can escape predators and accidental ingestion by herbivores by dropping off the plant onto the ground. They are often attended by ants, for the honeydew they produce, and are carried from plant to plant by the ants through their underground tunnels. Some species of aphid, known as "woolly aphids" Eriosomatinae , excrete a "fluffy wax coating" for protection.

It was common at one time to suggest that the cornicles were the source of the honeydew, and this was even included in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary [97] and the edition of the World Book Encyclopedia. There also is evidence of cornicle wax attracting aphid predators in some cases. Some clones of Aphis craccivora are sufficiently toxic to the invasive and dominant predatory ladybird Harmonia axyridis to suppress it locally, favouring other ladybird species; the toxicity is in this case narrowly specific to the dominant predator species.

Aphids are abundant and widespread, and serve as hosts to a large number of parasitoids , many of them being very small c. Plants mount local and systemic defences against aphid attack.

Meet Nosipho and Elsa: they're both sex workers, but in different worlds

Young leaves in some plants contain chemicals which discourage attack while the older leaves have lost this resistance, while in other plant species, resistance is acquired by older tissues and the young shoots are vulnerable. Volatile products from interplanted onions have been shown to prevent aphid attack on adjacent potato plants by encouraging the production of terpenoids , a benefit exploited in the traditional practice of companion planting , while plants neighbouring infested plants showed increased root growth at the expense of the extension of aerial parts.

Plants exhibiting aphid damage can have a variety of symptoms, such as decreased growth rates, mottled leaves, yellowing, stunted growth, curled leaves, browning, wilting, low yields and death. The removal of sap creates a lack of vigour in the plant, and aphid saliva is toxic to plants. Aphids frequently transmit plant viruses to their hosts, such as to potatoes , cereals , sugarbeets , and citrus plants. Cotton aphids Aphis gossypii often infect sugarcane , papaya and peanuts with viruses. The coating of plants with honeydew can contribute to the spread of fungi which can damage plants.

A hypothesis that insect feeding may improve plant fitness was floated in the mids by Owen and Wiegert. It was felt that the excess honeydew would nourish soil micro-organisms, including nitrogen fixers. In a nitrogen poor environment, this could provide an advantage to an infested plant over an uninfested plant. However, this does not appear to be supported by the observational evidence. Some aphids show some of the traits of eusociality , joining insects such as ants, bees and termites. However, there are differences between these sexual social insects and the clonal aphids, which are all descended from a single female parthenogenetically and share an identical genome.

About fifty species of aphid, scattered among the closely related, host-alternating families Pemphigidae and Hormaphididae , have some type of defensive morph. These are gall-creating species, with the colony living and feeding inside a gall that they form in the host's tissues. Among the clonal population of these aphids there may be a number of distinct morphs and this lays the foundation for a possible specialisation of function, in this case, a defensive caste.

The soldier morphs are mostly first and second instars with the third instar being involved in Eriosoma moriokense and only in Smythurodes betae are adult soldiers known. The hind legs of soldiers are clawed, heavily sclerotised and the stylets are robust making it possible to rupture and crush small predators.

Another requirement for the development of sociality is provided by the gall, a colonial home to be defended by the soldiers. The soldiers of gall forming aphids also carry out the job of cleaning the gall. The honeydew secreted by the aphids is coated in a powdery wax to form " liquid marbles " [] that the soldiers roll out of the gall through small orifices.

About species of aphid have been described and of these, some species have colonised food and fibre crops. As direct feeders on plant sap, they damage crops and reduce yields, but they have a greater impact by being vectors of plant viruses. The transmission of these viruses depends on the movements of aphids between different parts of a plant, between nearby plants and further afield.

In this respect, the probing behaviour of an aphid tasting a host is more damaging than lengthy aphid feeding and reproduction by stay-put individuals. The movement of aphids influences the timing of virus epidemics. Aphids, especially during large outbreaks, have been known to trigger allergic inhalant reactions in sensitive humans. Dispersal can be by walking or flight, appetitive dispersal or by migration. Winged aphids are weak fliers, lose their wings after a few days and only fly by day. Dispersal by flight is affected by impact, air currents, gravity, precipitation and other factors, or dispersal may be accidental, caused by movement of plant materials, animals, farm machinery, vehicles or aircraft.

Insecticide control of aphids is difficult, as they breed rapidly, so even small areas missed may enable the population to recover promptly. Aphids may occupy the undersides of leaves where spray misses them, while systemic insecticides do not move satisfactorily into flower petals. Finally, some aphid species are resistant to common insecticide classes including carbamates , organophosphates , and pyrethroids. For small backyard infestations, spraying plants thoroughly with a strong water jet every few days may be sufficient protection.

An insecticidal soap solution can be an effective household remedy to control aphids, but it only kills aphids on contact and has no residual effect. Integrated pest management of various species of aphids can be achieved using biological insecticides based on fungi such as Lecanicillium lecanii , Beauveria bassiana or Isaria fumosorosea. Aphids may also be controlled by the release of natural enemies , in particular lady beetles and parasitoid wasps.

However, since adult lady beetles tend to fly away within 48 hours after release, without laying eggs, repeated applications of large numbers of lady beetles are needed to be effective. For example, one large, heavily infested rose bush may take two applications of beetles each. Aphids are familiar to farmers and gardeners, mainly as pests. Peter Marren and Richard Mabey record that Gilbert White described an invading "army" of black aphids that arrived in his village of Selborne in August in "great clouds", covering every plant, while in the unusually hot summer of , White found that honeydew was so abundant as to "deface and destroy the beauties of my garden", though he thought the aphids were consuming rather than producing it.

Infestation of the Chinese sumac Rhus chinensis by Chinese sumac aphids Schlechtendalia chinensis can create "Chinese galls" which are valued as a commercial product. As "Galla Chinensis", they are used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat coughs , diarrhoea , night sweats, dysentery and to stop intestinal and uterine bleeding. Chinese galls are also an important source of tannins. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the insect. For other uses, see Aphid disambiguation. The ladybird beetle Propylea quatuordecimpunctata. An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals.

Journal of Animal Ecology. Aphididae in the Planetary Boundary Layer". The oldest aphid insect from the Middle Triassic of the Vosges, France. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 56 4: Formicidae with scale insects Sternorrhyncha: Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America. Aphid Ecology 2nd ed. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society.

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Encyclopedia of Insects 2nd ed. Smithsonian Institution and National Science Foundation. In Resh, Vincent H. Encyclopedia of Insects 2 ed. Retrieved 3 February Aphids on the World's Trees. An Identification and Information Guide. Annual Review of Entomology. Bugs of the World. Retrieved 21 February Aphididae based on mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis". Journal of Biological Research-Thessaloniki.

Diversification, Host Association, and Biogeographic Origins". Aphididae and the basal position of the subfamily Lachninae". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. A case in Lachninae Hemiptera: Aphids as Crop Pests. Behavioral, Evolutionary, and Applied Perspectives". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. In Buchanan, Bob B. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants 4th ed. American Society of Plant Physiologists. Journal of Insect Physiology. Archived from the original PDF on 16 July Regulatory mechanisms in insect feeding.

Journal of Experimental Biology. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Some major nutritional requirements".

Endosymbiosis of animals with plant microorganisms. Journal of General Microbiology. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology. Aphids as Crop Pests, 2nd Edition. An Outline of Entomology 4th ed. Journal of Economic Entomology. Aphididae on rice Oryza sativa L. Archived from the original PDF on Pests of Fruit Crops: A Colour Handbook, Second Edition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics.

Insects of the World. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Aphids and Their Symbiotic BacteriaBuchnera". Paulinella Breaks a Paradigm". The End of a Long Symbiotic Relationship? Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: The Mechanistic Benefits of Microbial Symbionts. Advances in Environmental Microbiology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Arthropods and their Relationships with Wild Vertebrate Animals.

University of Maryland, College Park. Archived from the original on 19 July Retrieved 18 October Journal of Applied Ecology. Thammasat International Journal of Science and Technology. Archived from the original PDF on 10 September Japanese Journal of Entomology. The Encyclopedia of Land Invertebrate Behaviour. Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

Biology and Ecology of Aphids. Journal of Insect Behavior. Retrieved 29 April Aphidiinae of Aphis ruborum Hemiptera: Aphididae and Its Role as a Host Reservoir". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. Archived from the original on Retrieved 6 February Annals of Applied Biology. US Government Printing Office. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved October 18, Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month. University of Wisconsin—La Crosse.

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Archived from the original on July 30, Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Retrieved 20 February Mass Production of Fungal Entomopathogens. Microbial control of insect and mite pests: Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. How to Help Them Work. Aphrophoridae Cercopidae Clastopteridae Epipygidae Machaerotidae. Cicadidae Tettigarctidae hairy cicadas. Aetalionidae Cicadellidae leafhoppers Melizoderidae Membracidae typical treehoppers, thorn bugs Myerslopiidae.

Aclerdidae Asterolecaniidae pit scales Beesoniidae beesoniids Carayonemidae carayonemids Cerococcidae ornate pit scales Coccidae soft scales Conchaspididae Dactylopiidae cochineals Diaspididae armored scales Eriococcidae felt scales Halimococcidae pupillarial palm scales Kermesidae Kerriidae lac scales Lecanodiaspididae false pit scales Margarodidae cottony cushion scales, giant coccids, ground pearls Micrococcidae Mediterranean scales Monophlebidae giant scales Ortheziidae ensign scales Phenacoleachiidae phenacoleachiids Phoenicococcidae palm scales Pseudococcidae mealybugs Putoidae giant mealybugs Stictococcidae stictococcids.

Adelgidae woolly conifer aphids Phylloxeridae phylloxerans. Suborder Heteroptera with Coleorrhyncha. Ceratocombidae Dipsocoridae Hypsipterygidae Schizopteridae Stemmocryptidae. Aenictopecheidae Enicocephalidae unique-headed bugs, gnat bugs. Gerridae water striders Hermatobatidae Veliidae riffle bugs. Hebridae velvet water bugs.

Hydrometridae marsh treaders or water measurers Macroveliidae Paraphrynoveliidae. Saldidae shore bugs Leptopodidae spiny shore bugs Omaniidae Aepophilidae. Belostomatidae giant water bugs Nepidae water scorpions, needle bugs. Window brothels, for instance, require operational licenses, can only do business in designated areas and must close between 6am and 8am. Even though sex workers in these brothels work for themselves, and not for the owners of the buildings, the proprietors are not permitted to rent out rooms to anyone younger than 21, which is the legal age for sex work in Amsterdam.

They also have to confirm that workers have permission to work in the country and are registered with the chamber of commerce for tax purposes. Van der Linde explains: Mariska Majoor from Amsterdam in The Netherlands became a sex worker when she was a teenager. Mia Malan visited Mariska and Robin in Amsterdam.

Across the street, next to the canal, a man in his late forties hovers in the thin mist. A thick wedding band constricts his ring finger. The man rubs one of his arms and scouts around nervously. Then he uses a small cloth to wipe his gold-framed glasses, hitches up his bermuda shorts and strides across the lane. When the glass door next to her window clicks closed behind the man, Anderssen clambers back onto her chair, freshens up her fuschia lipstick and says: I can do whatever I want, whenever I want.

The politics of decriminalisation. A study estimates that the decriminalisation of sex work could avert up to half of HIV infections among sex workers and their clients over the decade. The document left sex workers, concerned scientists and human rights activists fuming. Their outrage was sparked by the omission of what they, as well as international health bodies such as Unaids and the World Health Organisation , consider to be a crucial component for HIV prevention among sex workers: It was the first such five-year plan to exclude arguments advocating for decriminalisation.

The strategy, coordinated by Sanac but over which cabinet holds final approval, contrasted with the national HIV sex worker plan — also launched by Sanac — which strongly endorsed decriminalisation. Female sex workers, particularly those operating in countries where sex work is illegal, are significantly more likely to be infected with HIV than other women.

Decriminalising sex work — the removal of all laws against consensual adult sex work — scientists argue, will slow the epidemic among workers and their clients dramatically. Will decriminalising sex work increase trafficking? Activists say decriminalisation was a prominent feature in the draft of the - HIV plan that they provided input for.

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But, somewhere between that version and the one Cabinet approved , the concept inexplicably disappeared from the document. Health experts maintain that a mix of morals, politics and conservatism have trumped evidence. To the chagrin of civil society, the commission also recommended that sex work should continue to be fully criminalised. As a second option, it proposed a widely criticised model, the partial decriminalisation of sex work, under which it would no longer be a crime to sell sex but it would be an offence to buy it. Also known as the end-demand or Nordic model, partial decriminalisation has been shown to increase violence towards sex workers and decrease access to health services — two crucial elements that determine how fast HIV spreads.

Tlaleng Mofokeng is a reproductive health doctor in Johannesburg and also the deputy chairperson of the advocacy group, the Sexual and Reproductive Coalition of South Africa. She believes sex work should not be criminalised. Mia Malan spoke by phone to Mofokeng. Sex workers must be protected. In another twist in July, the same month that fresh evidence of the harmful effects of partial decriminalisation on the safety of sex workers in France and Canada was released at the International Conference on Aids in Amsterdam, the National Council of Provinces NCOP , unanimously voted in favour of this model and adopted a resolution in support of it.

An NCOP committee has also visited Sweden — the country that pioneered partial decriminalisation — to research the model. Partial decriminalisation deprives them of those rights. Most sex workers in the Netherlands use Excel spreadsheets to keep track of their income and also employ a bookkeeper. A soft red sheen covers the bath. The brothel, which has 14 windows spread across four buildings, and also an online booking system, opened in May My Red Light also provides clean sheets and towels for sessions with clients.

You want to focus on the quality of the food and the health and safety thereof. It also employs counsellors and social workers who help them to report abuse or exploitation, and provides English and Dutch language classes, self defence lessons and assistance with tax registration. Bacterial sexually transmitted infections can make it easier to contract HIV, or, put differently, increase the efficiency of HIV transmission.

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It is therefore important to treat these as part of HIV prevention. Like most of her colleagues she uses an Excel spreadsheet and also employs a bookkeeper. The night shift workers clock in at 8pm, to work until 6am the next morning. The legalisation of sex work, as in the case of the Netherlands, Senegal and Mali, is slightly different from decriminalising the profession: With decriminalisation — for instance, in New Zealand and parts of Australia — sex workers are more empowered to make decisions about the way in which they would like to work.

But even when sex work is legalised, particularly when all aspects — the buying, selling and procurement — are legal, the researchers of a study in The Lancet HIV found significantly lower HIV infection rates among sex workers than in countries where the profession is criminalised. The authors of the international Aids conference study concur: These factors might explain the low HIV prevalence of 0.

A survey estimates that South Africa has between and female sex workers. In South Africa, where the government supports 25 NGO clinics that provide services to sex workers, but within a criminalised environment, a radically different scenario is playing out. The sex worker plan stipulates that, between and , the health department had to have distributed The Netherlands has a sex worker union that workers can join for free legal services and workshops.

Amsterdam has a sex worker information centre that tourists can visit to learn more about the trade. On the glass door of the Prostitution Information Centre in Amsterdam, beneath a heart-shaped cushion hanging on a string, a poster with a red umbrella looms. It provides its members with free legal services and workshops. Karin, who prefers to keep her surname private, is a sex worker of a different kind: Karin contacted an agency that focuses on the sexual needs of disabled clients and two days later she had her first job.

Sex work is remuneration for sexual pleasure given by consenting adults. Karin gets paid by the hour and travels to her clients. As the van disappeared into the late night traffic, Vidima walked into the garage shop and bought a box of Stuyvesant Reds cigarettes.