Meine Erziehung zur Sexsklavin – SM Fantasien (Teil 2) (German Edition)

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The German poem was probably written between and But one day he meets four knights in glittering armor, and an unconquerable longing for the life of knighthood is awakened in him. His mother reluctantly sees him leave her, and dies of a broken heart. After many adventures Parzival arrives at King Arthur's court, receives instruction in chivalry from the aged knight Gurnemanz, and by his bravery wins the lady Condwiramur as his wife.

Later he comes to the castle of the Grail, where he has a chance to release the suffering king of the Grail, Anf ortas, from his trouble by asking about the cause of it, but in his simplicity and false understanding of knightly manners Parzival omits the natural question of human sympathy. Thus he forfeits the crown of the Grail, and is unworthy of the Round Table which had received him. Reviling his fate he doubts the goodness of God, and wanders in gloom five long years. At length his soul wins peace through the gende teachings of the hermit Trevrizent, the brother of Herzeloide and Anfortas.

Par- zival returns to Arthur purified, is received again at the Round Table, and goes forth once more to the castle of the Grail. Now he asks the question and receives the crown in the place of Anfortas. The poem closes with the reunion of Parzival and Condwiramur; the elder of their two sons, Lohengrin, is to succeed his father as king of the Grail. In the middle of the poem, at the beginning of Parzival's wretched wanderings, Wolfram has inserted a long series of adventures which the Arthurian knight Gawan undertakes, in this way contrasting the spiritual knighthood of Parzival with die worldly knighthood of Gawan.

In other places, too, Wolfram has interwoven various new episodes. The central theme of the epic as a whole is expressed at the beginning: This deep thought, the manner in which Wolfram illus- trates it by the development of his hero's character, and the lofty spiritual content of the poem raise ParzivcU far above all other poems of knighthood. This basic idea and the impulse to higher spirituality which Wolfram's epic con- tains are not to be found in the French sources; they were the creation of the German poet. Its subject is the love story, exquisitely told, of Schionatulander and Sigune, a great-granddaughter of Titurel.

A later poet wove Wolfram's fragments into a long rambling poem on the Legend of the Holy Grail in general, called Der jungere Titurel; 1 it was for a long time ascribed to Wolfram and for that reason enjoyed a reputation that was wholly undeserved. WUlehalm von Oranse, Wolfram's other unfinished epic, is based on a French historical saga concerning the sainted Count Willehalm, or William, of Toulouse. Wolfram tells of Willehalm's encounters with the Mohammedans, especially of the celebrated Battle of Aleschans in The poem is distinguished by a masterly characterization of the heroine Gyburg and the herculean squire Rennewart, both of whom are infidels at the beginning of the story.

The toler- ance with which the poet recognizes the virtues of the un- believers is very remarkable. To him Christianity is the religion of love and humanity, and he is free from all fa- naticism. Admired and praised by his contemporaries Wolfram commanded an almost superstitious veneration even beyond the end of the Middle Ages. Gottfried von Strassburg was the only man who rose in opposition to 1 The Later Titurel. Gottfried von Strassburg, probably a townsman without Tank, who wrote about , was Wolfram's greatest rival.

French poem by Thomas of Brittany, was un- finished when he died. It is the story of omnipotent love, of the ruthless adulterous passion of Tristan and Isolde, induced, and therefore mitigated, by a magic potion whose power they did not know when they drank. Gottfried tells the story with thrilling power, his psychological analy- sis of character and emotion leaves no phase untouched, he manages versification and style with playful ease; in short, he is an artist to a degree of which his predecessor Eilhart von Oberge never dreamed.

One must only regret that he was not permitted to end his epic. From the solemn tone of the beginning and from suggestions here and there it is probable that he did not intend merely to glorify unbounded lust, but rather to present an agonizing struggle between unquenchable passion and the dictates of moral law. Hartmann, Wolfram, and Gottfried were honored by the numerous younger epic poets of the time as the great- est masters of their art; others were forced to acknowledge themselves their inferiors.

Strieker, a poet from central Germany, introduced the humorous short story in verse into German literature with his Piaffe Amis. The Alemannic knight Rudolf von Ems died excelled in beauty of verse-form, which he learned from Gottfried. His stories are too long, but he tells them wdL His best are two legends, and of these especially Der gute Gerhart, a very thoughtful poem based 1 Patrmm Amis. Its hero, Gerhart, finds the highest happiness in life in renunciation of self and in activity for others out of pure love of God and man.

Rudolf's other noteworthy story is a version of an Oriental legend, Bar- loam und Josapkat. Throughout his works Rudolf exhib- its a charmingly simple, pious view of life. Konrad von Wiirzburg died , a thoroughly educated townsman, is also a master of graceful form after the pattern of Gott- fried. In his larger poems like Engelhari, which was writ- ten in praise of true friendship, he often loses himself in useless details, but his shorter stories are admirable, espe- cially a Swabian legend, Otto mit dem Barte, 1 in which Konrad humorously portrays a knight's bravery and loy- alty to his vassals.

Far from all the imitation and affectation common to court circles stands Wernher der Gartener, a Bavarian Wernherder wandering minstrel, who wrote the poem Gartener. The story concerns the tragic fate of a peasant's son who thinks himself too good to till the soil, and yields to the example of the robber knights by becoming a robber himself. It is the oldest German village romance. The poem contains wonder- fully vivid descriptions of contemporaneous life, which make it especially valuable for the study of German man- ners and customs in the thirteenth century.

These char- acters were indeed so real and near to mediaeval poets, that almost no sense of historical perspective can be found in their poetry. As already suggested in connection with Heinrich von Veldeke's greatest work, customs and people, even those of the most remote age, are treated as con- temporaneous with the poets, or as of a time only slightly earlier. The style of the popular epic is simple and concise, and, with the exception of technical words and phrases used in describing court affairs, it is free from strange and unnatural turns of expression.

The versifica- tion clings to the old rule of a fixed number of stresses and an indefinite number of unstressed syllables; but the num- ber of both tended to become fixed after the example of the court epic. The poets use partly the popular Nibelung strophe and imitations of it, partly the short rimed couplets of the court epic and minstrel poetry, where each line con- tains four stresses, or, in the case of feminine or two- syllable rime, either three or four stresses.

All the heroic epics, strophic or otherwise, were intended to be read aloud, not sung as their sources were. The epics of this era which now exist in a complete form treat the Amelung, Nibelung, and Hegeling sagas as well as those of Ortnit, Hugdietrich, and Wolfdietrich, all of which have been outlined in a previous chapter. The earliest of the Middle High German national heroic poems, the Nibelungenlied, 2 is at the same time lungeniiecr the grandest monument of its kind, the model to a greater or less degree of all its successors.

It was written by an unknown knightly poet in Austria about , and has been handed down in numerous copies 1 Cf. The phraseology of the original can not be restored, still less the words of the folk-songs used by the poet The poem contains nearly ten thousand lines grouped in the so-called Nibelung strophe, the use of which by Kurenberg has already been mentioned. This strophe consists of four lines, each of which is divided by a caesura, the first half of the line containing four stresses throughout, and the second half three stresses in the first three lines and four in the last one; the rime is masculine, that is, of only one stressed syllable.

The style is simple and without many figures of speech, but forcible and sincere. A dream, in which she sees a pet falcon torn to pieces by two eagles, warns her never to love; but Siegfried, a young courageous prince at Xanten in the Netherlands, hears of her beauty and comes to woo her. Gunther consents to the union on condition that Siegfried will assist him as a vassal in winning Brunnhild, Queen of Iceland. Accompanied by his chief vassal Hagen of Tronje, and many others, Gunther sets out, and Brunnhild is won by the aid of Sieg- fried, who is made invisible by his magic hood.

All now return to Worms, where the double marriage is celebrated and a season of happiness begins. Ten years later, Siegfried and Kriemhild come to Worms from Xanten to attend a festival.

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Brunnhild's jealousy leads to quarrels between the two queens over the rank of their lords, and Hagen promises Brunnhild to avenge her for the insulting words of Kriemhild. He slays Siegfried treacherously on a hunting party by hurling his spear at Siegfried's one vulnerable spot. Kriemhild is crushed by grief; for a long time she refuses to be reconciled even with her brothers, and she lives now only to avenge Siegfried's death. The Nibelung treasure is brought back from Xanten, but Hagen sinks it in the Rhine, as he fears its power in winning friends for Kriemhild.

With the promise of the mes- senger Rudiger to avenge whatever wrongs have ever been done to her, Kriemhild gives her consent and journeys down the Danube to her new lord. After thirteen years she and Etzel invite Gunther and his vassals to visit them, an invitation which they accept in spite of Hagen's fore- bodings and the prophecies of nixies in the Danube, whom they see on the way.

When they arrive at Etzel's court Kriemhild demands the Nibelung treasure left to her by Siegfried, but Hagen refuses to disclose its hiding-place, and insolently acknowledges the murder of Siegfried. Kriemhild thereupon incites the Huns to attack the Bur- gundians, or Nibelungs as they are now called, and the terrible fight begins.

Kriemhild vainly offers to save her brothers if they will deliver up Hagen to her, and the frightful slaughter rages for two whole days. Again Hagen will not reveal the hiding-place of the hoard, and Kriemhild orders the head of Gunther to be brought to him as a warning not to persist in concealing the secret Exultant now that he alone of living men knows the secret of the hoard, and that it will never be revealed, he defies Kriemhild, and she completes her revenge by striking off his head with Siegfried's sword.

Dietrich's vassal Hildebrand, unwilling to see the brave Hagen die in this way unavenged, slays Kriemhild. How much of this is the poet's own, and how much he found in the old heroic songs, can not be determined in detail. The description of Brunnhild suggests struction and an ancient myth concerning a Valkyr who loses character of her superhuman strength with her virginity; another myth occurs to one in reading the reference to the prophesying nixies in the Danube. Legendary elements in the Siegfried saga are suggested by the accounts of Siegfried's fight with the dragon, his invulnerability, the winning of the Rhine gold, and the magic hood.

But the poet of the Nibelungenlied knew how to construct a unified whole and infuse new meaning and life into it, and he gave in this way quite as much as he took from his sources. Here and there indeed he has allowed a contradiction in fact to stand as his sources con- tained it, or he fills in a gap with little success; he also even leaves some obscure passages unexplained, or only half succeeds in clothing semi-pagan ideas and episodes with the knightly Christian garb which he and other mediaeval poets like to use.

But such minor blemishes are easily overlooked in view of the vivid and essentially harmonious picture presented by his work as a whole. The construc- tion of the poem is so simple and compact that it has often been compared with a drama; indeed when Hebbel wrote his drama Die Nibelungen, he followed the course of the action in the poem without any significant changes. The great moral precept of it, faithfulness, is taught through a variety of forms, the faithfulness of lovers and friends, the faithfulness of vassal and king. The characters, especially those of Kriemhild and her chief enemy Hagen, were wrought by the hand of a great master.

With fine restraint and effect they and their emotions are made real and clear, not by objective description, but by their own actions and words. The general tone of the Nibelungenlied is, in harmony with the subject, profoundly serious; occasionally it is tender and idyllic.

The domi- nant note is tragic, and this is struck at the beginning and the end: In all the manuscripts of the Nibelungenlied there is a kind of sequel called Die Klage, 1 by another author. M It is a poem in short couplets and describes at fatiguing length the obsequies of those killed in the story of the Nibelungenlied. The best parts of Die Klage are the description of Hildebrand's nephew Wolfhart and the story of the way in which the news of Riidiger's death was received at his home.

Die Geschichte der O - Die Rituale auf Roissy - Teil 1

In the style, too, although this is less popular, the model is unmistakable. Gudrun is divided into three parts, as the poet begins not only with the story of Gudrun's mother, Hilde, but even with that of her grandfather, Hagen of Ireland. The third part is the story of a Frisian princess Gudrun, who 1 The Lament. At last one day, when she is at her task on the shore, an angel in the form of a bird foretells her speedy deliverance, and the next day she sees two men approach- ing in a boat They are Herwig and her brother. Joined by Wate and other vassals, they fight with the Normans the following day and win the victory.

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Gudrun returns in joy to her people, and is united with Herwig. The first part of the poem, the story of Hagen, is prob- ably a free invention of the poet after the model of the The Origin of court epics; the other two parts, however, are the Poem. The bird, or angel of prophecy, and the description of Wate at the slaughter of the Normans remind us vividly of the swan virgins and the sea giants of early Germanic myths.

The second part of the epic, con- cerning Hilde, is nearer the original form of the Hegeling saga than either of the other parts; but, as frequently hap- pened with the sagas, the conclusion, which was originally tragic, is here toned down into a happy one, and the story thus loses much of its power. A similar conclusion has already been noted in the story of Gudrun, which is really no more than a richly elaborated repetition of the Hilde story, the chief difference being that Hilde followed her captor willingly.

Gudrun is a tale of and Pro- the sea, of wind and wave and voyages and castles by the sea with their views of passing sails; it offers a striking contrast with the inland scene of the Nibelungenlied. On account of the setting and other elements in the two stories, these epics have often been called the Odyssey and Iliad of German poetry.

They are also complements of each other in their happy and tragic terminations, in their sunlight and gloom, in their gentle dignity and pitiless austerity. Gudrun, a heroine even as Kriemhild, is, however, not driven to frightful acts of vengeance which are a denial of her womanly nature. Her heroism is revealed in unabating faithfulness, in proud endurance of suffering, in her indom- itable hopefulness, and in her preservation of lofty moral purity in the presence of her tormentors.

Her character is one of the noblest and most real in poetry. The poem has come down to us in a very unlucky form; the only extant manuscript of it was not written until the beginning of the sixteenth century, and even this manuscript is not a copy of the original poem, but a reproduction of a version dating from the end of the thirteenth century. Gudrun is to be found in the Ambraser Heldenbuch, 1 which consists of copies of mediaeval heroic epics made at the command of the emperor Maximilian I; the Heldenbuch was compiled, and for a long time kept, at the castle Ambras near Inns- bruck.

The other popular epics vary considerably in merit. Almost all of them deal with some portion of the saga about 1 The Ambras Book of Heroes. The best of the minor epics are AlbharU Tod 1 larEpks. The hero of "Bern" breaks into the garden, overpowers Laurin, and then in turn becomes his captive and is finally rescued by a maiden. Other phases of the Dietrich saga were often treated until the end of the thirteenth century, but with less force "DaiEcken- an d art. Das Eckenlied, 3 written in a twelve- Uad " line strophe called the "Bern tune," fresh and popular in spirit, presents a vivid contrast between the ambitious, valiant young giant Ecke and the modest, delib- erate hero Dietrich.

The form is the so-called "shortened Nibelung strophe" ; that is, the last stress is usually missing.

The poem has been preserved in five different versions, and tells how Kriemhild invites the heroes of "Bern" to her rose garden in Worms to measure themselves with the champions there. The victor is to receive a kiss and a wreath of roses from her. In this contrast of the two greatest heroes of the popular epic, Siegfried and Dietrich, lies the chief interest of the poem.

The figures of Dietrich and the brawny bellicose monk Ilsan are the most finished in the poem. Several epics by minstrels, written in the same shortened form of the Nibelung strophe, stand apart, in content, from the Dietrich saga. An expedition after a bride " woifd? The versions of Wolfdietrich, a story of East Frankish origin, as that of the hero's father Hugdietrich, vary greatly; but the central theme of the saga, the glorification of the faithfulness of king and vassal, is not wholly lost even in the maze of constantly increasing adventures.

Besides the usual meaning of love minne also contains the idea of "memory, loving mindfulness," affection in the broadest sense, for example, gotes minne; 1 but even with this expanded conception of love the whole content of Middle High German lyric poetry is by no means sum- marized under the title of minnesong. Many other human emotions besides those of love are expressed in it, especially those prompted by the world of nature, the change in the seasons, the joy of summer and the sadness of winter, re- ligious feelings, love of fatherland, political convictions, gratitude to princely patrons, ridicule and jest, the thought- ful contemplation of human life in all its phases, in short, personal experiences of every kmd.

The range of theme in Middle High German minnesong is one of its striking characteristics, but as we have said, the note of love is the one most often sounded in these as in all lyric poems. Here men and women are not drawn together merely by physical passion, but 1 "love of God. Nor does the conception of love as entertained by the best minnesingers differ essentially from the Germanic notion, at least in as far as these poets were not contaminated by foreign customs and literature.

But from the end of the twelfth century on, both the corrupt court life of France and the passionate, sensuous poetry of French, and espe- cially of the Proven9al troubadours, were often imitated in Germany. The worship and service of a lady, or mistress, usually a married woman of noble birth, became the fashion, and the praises of their ladies were sung by the poets in imitation of their models. Provincial differences are unmistakable in this poetry. The lyrics of the Rhine country and western Germany in general were naturally most influenced by their immediate neighbors; in the north the poets of northern France were the models, in the south the Proven9al poets.

In Bavaria and Austria the lyric remained truer to its origin, namely, as a natural outgrowth of native popular songs. The poets, who were for the most part members of the knighthood, were also composers; to each kind of strophe they invented they also created a tune, which forms of was universally recognized as the possession of one man.

Whoever used it without authority was dubbed a "tune filcher. The third part, the Abgesang, or "con- cluding song," is built on different lines from the other parts, and has its own melody. Besides the poems, or 1 "A mighty fortress is our God. A third form of verse in this period is the Spruch, or gnomic verse, whose content is reflective, moralistic, re- ligious, satiric, and, from the time of Walther von der Vogelweide, political. Apart from its form, in three parts, it shows no foreign influence. Songs and gnomic verse were often written by the same poet; the greatest song-writer, Walther von der Vogelweide, was also the greatest author of gnomic poetry.

Poems by about a hundred and sixty minnesingers have been handed down in manuscript collections; the Weingartener, the Little Heidelberg, and the so-called Manesse, or Large Heidel- berg manuscripts, are the most important. The last- named was written about and is now, together with the second, in Heidelberg. It is the most comprehensive collection, containing about seven thousand strophes by a hundred and forty poets. The poems of the older Austrian minnesingers, Kiiren- berg and Dietmar von Aist, were in the main an outgrowth of the native folk-song, as we have seen, but mane- the west German lyric poets like Heinrich von Veldeke and Priedrich von Hausen, and the Thuringian Heinrich von Morungen, the greatest minne- singer before Walther, were deeply affected by Romance poetry.

The Alsatian Reinmar von Hagenau made this refined art of the court familiar to the German-speaking south-east, when he settled in Austria toward the end of the twelfth century. Walther's origin is a mat- ter of dispute; he may and may not have belonged to a lower order of the knighthood, and he was von der m perhaps, but not certainly, born in Austria.

After Frederick's death the destitute poet began, in the fashion of the wandering singers, a life of roaming which lasted some twenty years. At first he tarried for a time at the court of the Hohenstaufen Philip, third son of Frederick Barbarossa and Duke of Swabia, who was then contending with the Guelph Otto, Duke of Brunswick, for the succession as Emperor of Germany. Walther assisted Philip with several political verses and celebrated Christmas of with him in Magdeburg. Walther was at the court of Hermann, Landgrave of Thuringia, in Eisenach several times. On the occasion of his visit in he met Wolfram von Eschenbach.

The legend of the minstrels' contest in Hermann's castle, the Wartburg, which Richard Wagner later united with the legend of the poet Tannhauser in the music drama of that name, sprang from this meeting of the two greatest poets of their time at the court of the art-loving landgrave. How Walther had to struggle for the necessities of life fa suggested by a voucher dated , which records that Bishop Wolfger of Passau gave the poet five solidi, that is, about four dollars, for the purchase of a fur coat.

Walther found favor for a time also at Meissen in Saxony with Margrave Dietrich, and elsewhere with other princes. After Philip died in , and Otto was generally ac- knowledged as emperor, Germany hoped for lasting peace. Walther defended Otto's imperial rights against the claims and encroachments of the church in several vigor- ous poems written in Thus at last he saw himself permanently guarded against possi- ble abject want. With all the force and sharpness which the nationalistic Walther used in the defence of the empire against the papacy, he was always a deeply religious soul, and when Pope Gregory IX hurled the ban of excommu- nication against Frederick in and forbade the Cru- sade which Frederick had promised to conduct, Walther showed his piety in arousing enthusiasm for the project by various songs.

He probably took part in in the ardently longed-for "dear journey," and seems to have died in or shortly after his return. He was buried in the cloisters of the New Cathedral in Wurzburg. In his poetry Walther united the highly developed art of the knightly singer and the simplicity and freshness of feel- ing of the popular minstrel. At first indeed as a T fifl Poetry. He sang of all that stirs and ennobles the heart of man. The ecstasies and miseries of love, the gladness of spring and the woe of winter, all find expres- sion, joyful and melancholy in turn ; every theme has its own color.

All of Walther's lyrics spring from personal experience and from the depths of a passionate, sensitive heart; and the most bitter, most painful feelings pour forth as overpoweringly as the poet's steadfast love of his country and his deep piety.

He is the greatest German patri- otic poet. In his calmer, more reflective gnomic verse he attacks the low and impure, and teaches virtue and wis- dom. Even minor events in his life have a humorous or serious aspect for him. In all the changing fortunes of the times, in the many tribulations of his life, Wrflther seems to have preserved throughout his manliness and his in- dependence.

In his songs and gnomic verses there lives a strength of personality which thrilled his contemporaries and inspires in us now a deep admiration and respect for the man as well as the poet. At his death he was univer- sally mourned and celebrated as the model singer, nowhere more beautifully than in the simple lines of Hugo von Trimberg: Satiated with the artificial tone of the court, Reuenthai Neidhart turned to the folk-song for his inspira- tion and his model, and wrote many humorous dance poems, mostly in strophes of only two parts.

The themes for his songs of summer, written for the dance under the linden, he took directly from village life. In his later years he also wrote winter songs constructed in three parts; these were about the dances in the peas- ants' cottages, and vigorously ridiculed peasant maimers.

Of the countless followers of Walther, Ulrich von Liechtenstein especially distinguished himself by his fresh, Ulrich von melodious songs. His autobiography, Fraverv- Liechtenstein. The most gifted gnomic Zwetw. Besides the short didactic compositions of Herg6r, Wal- ther, Reinmar von Zweter, and other poets, we also have Lone Didac- l Qn g poems of the same type from this period, tic Poems.

Both of these poems were written within the first two decades of the thirteenth century. His poem is a charming layman's breviary, consisting largely of a series of pithy gnomic poems which embody the sterling wisdom of a rich experience; but there are also verses whose contents are based on contem- porary events.

The latest didactic poem of this period 1 Service of Lady. The clergy took little or no part in all this poetic activity, but the first appreciable upward tendency in German Prose by the prose was directly due to an impulse which ciergy. As late as the twelfth cen- tury the content of sermons was taken from Latin collec- tions.

But when the clergy began to exhort men to the Crusades, they were discussing events of their own times, and they had to cultivate a style of presentation which was clear and impressive. The popular eloquence which thus arose became still more universal through the estab- lishment of mendicant orders; the Dominicans and Fran- ciscans, who settled in various parts of Germany about David von , were especially eloquent. Berthold was a preacher of penance and damnation such as the time needed, full of tremendous force of language, passionate, popular, and original, and therefore successful almost beyond belief.

He went about through all north- ern and central Germany, and when he preached in the open fields thousands flocked to hear him. Legal and historical prose began at this same time in north Germany. At the great Diet in Mainz in the first imperial law in the German tongue, one forbidding any disturbance of the general public peace and safety, was proclaimed by the order of the emperor Frederick II.

And by a Saxon clergyman had written the first historical work in German prose, the S'dchsische Weltchronik, 2 which in time became known throughout Germany. The latter directed his zeal toward much more practical mat- ters than poetry, and he was forced to suffer but little interference from the various emperors and petty princes, who thought first of their own selfish political schemes and of the preservation of their own existences.

With the glory of the empire sank as well all national consciousness. The strong upward tendency of commerce and the trades offered the means for a life of comfort in the towns, and there some love of literature was kept alive, although the crude simplicity of town life was very different from the exquisiteness of the old life of chivalry, and vulgarity and ignorance were very prevalent. In the literature which arose under these conditions a reader notices first a great diversity in the language employed, as everybody wrote in his own dialect; instead of the refined norm of knighthood we find an unstable language with many ugly dialectal ex- crescences.

German literature in these centuries threat- ened seriously to break up into a number of more or less isolated, provincial literatures. The imaginative poems of knighthood deteriorated into allegories, minnesong dried up into mastersong. But beside the fading blossoms new buds were swelling. Charles IV's foundation of the first German university, at Prague in , followed by other similar institutions, opened the way to the cultivation of learning based on the ancients, that is, to humanism. The great inventions and discov- eries of the fifteenth century were also of vast consequence in the following age.

Thus this period of decay in medi- aeval literature appears at the same time as a season of prep- aration for the period which begins with the Reformation. Epic poetry prospered most, as long as it followed the trend of the time, that is, as long as it remained edifying Didactic an d didactic.

Thus sacred legend was fostered Poet1, with success, but also in shorter secular stories interesting works were produced, especially in humorous tales, which were often didactic in their intent and effect. The art of fable-writing in the Middle Ages is best repre- sented by the work of the Bernese Dominican Boner. He gave them so much new charm by the use 1 The Jewel. The most successful, purely Brant didactic poet was the jurist Sebastian Brant d. His chief work was the much-read didactic poem Das NarrenschijJ, 1 written in ; it was the first German work that achieved fame abroad.

After the manner of the humanists it ridicules the weaknesses and the crimes of the age as unreasoning, absurd follies; the "Fools" are adulterers, unbelievers, usurers, and the like. The most famous version of the beast epic was Reinke de Vos, 2 printed at Lubeck in ; it was the product of The Beast an unknown Low Saxon. National heroic poetry dragged out a wretched existence.

The epics of former times were sadly disfigured, partly by additions, partly by curtailment. Hurnen n which tells in its first fifteen stanzas of Sieg- fried's youth and fight with the dragon accord- ing to the saga, but all too briefly, and the Jungere HUde- brandslied, 4 a capital popular ballad whose spontaneous 1 The Ship of Fools. Both these fifteenth-century poems about Siegfried and Hildebrand are written in the shortened Nibelung strophe, that is, with the fourth line shortened by one stress, a form which is now called the "new Nibe- lung strophe"; with the caesuras rimed, and the strophe thus turned into an eight-line stanza, it was called the "Hildebrand tune.

Epic of of these is the last outpost of the court epic, set Knighthood,. A much greater service was done to German literature by Maximilian when he ordered the preservation of Gudrun, as mentioned above. The oldest of these chronicles go back to the end of the thirteenth century. The most val- 1 A name, " One who thinks of higher things. In their clumsy hands the nice laws of the art became a sterile mass of regulations. Feeling for rhythm was dead, but a painful regard for mechanical correctness lived on.

In content the mastersongs are mostly religious and didactic; now and then they tell an historical or allegorical story. Judges regularly appointed watched closely lest a song violate the code in content or form. The content was not permitted to contradict the Bible, nor to be obscure to ordinary intelligence. As regards form, every Par, or song, had to have several Gesatze, or strophes; and every strophe, as in the minnesong, had to have two similarly con- structed parts and a "concluding song"; impure rimes and the contraction of several syllables into one were for- bidden.

In every school there were five orders of mem- bers: The schools assembled once a week in an appointed room or hall, sometimes in a church or town hall, and there the songs were delivered and judged. Mastersongs became the property of the schools, one of whose laws forbade the circulation of the songs in written or printed copies. Moreover, these masters did not always bear themselves as stiffly as one might think; beside the school poetry some wrote other works with larger views, which had some real value for later literature.

Before the end of the cen- tury Strasburg, Worms, Nuremberg, and other cities also had schools, and later almost all the larger towns.

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The most renowned in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was the one at Nuremberg, of which Hans Sachs, the Nestor of mastersingers, was a member. The school at Ulm, the last survivor, continued until In this period the only genuine lyric poetry, simple and direct in feeling and expression, is to be found in the folk- The Folk- song. But these songs of the people were not written down before the end of the four- teenth century, and then only in isolated cases. The folk- song was first considered worthy of preservation in the fifteenth century.

Every folk-song, as every other poetic production, goes back to some poet; the only difference is that the author's name was usually forgotten.

But the name folk-song is accurate in the implication of its being a song of the people, for two reasons: The real folk-song is sung, not spoken; the words and melody are inseparable. Every emotion which a normal man can have lies within the province of the folk-song. Love naturally assumes a leading position, but nature, the joys of comradeship, and historical events are among the sub- jects.

The most comprehensive collection of German folk-songs, by Erk and Bohme, which contains over two thousand specimens, or about one-tenth of the whole number, divides its songs into fifteen categories whose titles would seem to embrace the expression of every human emotion, but even then a sixteenth category must be added with the title "Miscellaneous. These choruses, which were, of course, in the language of the people, were the beginnings of dramatic representations. But they were doomed to die, as the church persecuted them because they were rooted in pa- ganism.

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