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However, south of Canada, Coho habitat—often streams that have been drained, filled, buried or otherwise fouled by development—has dwindled, and so have the fish. Coho cannot be harvested in much of their sub-Canadian range, and most Coho that arrives on your plate is Alaskan.

Firm, fresh and excellent: The fine flesh of the Coho salmon. This second-smallest of the Pacific salmon may be tied with the Coho in terms of table quality. Sockeye flesh is brilliantly colored—almost fluorescent orange—and even when canned is sold as gourmet-grade fish. When served fresh, it is top notch—firm, rich and flavorful. In fact, many salmon devotees consider sockeye the absolute best of all the salmon—even better than the king— however one decides to cook it.

They rival pinks in terms of millions and historically swam up the Columbia River in water-clogging millions, their heads turning green and their bodies brilliant red. Photo courtesy of Flickr user Alexandra Guerson. The Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia is famous for its tides. One of the seven wonders of North America, they reach a record height of 50 feet. It comes in and then it goes right out to the point where it's just like constantly changing the landscape and the intertidal zone.

Today, he lives in his now-adopted home of Portland, Maine, another peninsula, this time surrounded by the Casco Bay. A Tale of Acadie. Some attempted to return only to find their houses and lands occupied. As the story goes, during their stay, Conolly shared a tale that one of his parishioners had told him about the Acadians, in hopes that Hawthorne might decide to use it in a future story.

Beyond politics, it also imbued the physical setting of Acadia with extra glamor. He speaks with Smithsonian. Literature is very inspiring to me, especially very descriptive types of writing. So Longfellow's "Evangeline," especially the first part of it, just has a lot of these really vivid and rich descriptions of the landscape. Whenever I read stuff like that I get these really intense visual pictures in my head and it drives me to want to capture that on film. Where there specific lines in his poetry that especially stuck with you?

Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed! Even the first line: Were you looking to tell the story through Longfellow's eyes or did you also want to capture the discrepancies in the story? I wasn't exactly looking to tell a true story about the Acadians. I was really going for a fictional narrative in the same way he did. And that's kind of the same thing I did. How did you go about capturing these emotions. Did you just wander around Nova Scotia? Or did you have particular places in mind? Yeah, I wandered around a lot.

I drove and drove and drove. Nova Scotia is big. Just following random roads not really knowing where they would lead. During this project did you talk to a lot of locals or did you keep yourself removed? A little bit of both. I tend to keep to myself and shy away from people more or less when I'm photographing. The first year I definitely kept to myself. Then the second year I started meeting some more locals. And then the third year I was actually more proactive about trying to connect with some people because I wanted people to know what I was doing and get some feedback.

Also, I wanted to make connections as a way of getting access to more places. Can we talk about the religious elements in these photos. How intentional were they? It's unmistakable when you're out there that faith is a big part of the culture. Likewise, in Longfellow's poem, there's a lot of that. The first part takes place in a church, so there's references to the priest and the church in the poem. I went back and forth about that a lot. I did photograph a handful of people. I hadn't come across an Evangeline, but some of portraits I have I was able to place the people that I found and met with the characters in the book.

The father of Gabriel was one of the people that I thought I might have captured. But it just seemed too forced to me, and I just decided that leaving it landscapes-only with no people was more powerful. Longfellow never visited Nova Scotia himself. The fact that he had never been there to me was amazing. He was able to describe some of these areas so perfectly. So that was amazing to me. Being able to experience those places and put them on film was super exciting. That's kind of what drove the whole project, that sense of discovery and the excitement.

Portland is evolving very quickly, so there's so much to photograph and so little time, basically. You can't imagine how quickly things are disappearing and new things are being built. What do you think it is about them that draw your eye and lens? Finding different vantage points and using the structures and the way the land is shaped to build compositions is just like a never-ending visual game for me. That's what I love about it. But also, the way that architecture is unique to different areas.

A really big, unexpected thing when I got to Nova Scotia was how beautiful and unique its style of architecture is. Very Victorian and gothic style. Weathered wood and things like that, which I love because all of that tells a story about the people and about the climate and all kinds of different things that you can read just from the buildings, themselves. I tend to look at buildings almost as people, as characters. Each one tells a story and has a history and a personality.

When you clicked on the link to read this article, your computer, tablet or phone sent a request that traveled hundreds or perhaps thousands of miles at the speed of light. After leaving your house or office, likely via a fiber optic cable, it traversed the continent, crossing through a handful of Internet exchanges along the way. Ultimately, it reached a data center in Chicago where Smithsonian.

Soon, though, the packers of data your computer requests when you browse the web might make a slight detour as part of its journey to a data center and back to your house. Much like how, when you call for tech support, you're likely to speak to someone in India, we might be on the verge of an age where we routinely outsource much of our data to the frigid island of Iceland.

Iceland is a perfect mix of fire as in geothermal energy water hydropower and ice cold air, to cool racks of servers without AC. In the data storage industry where the biggest cost is electricity, Verne Global claims they can provide enough cheap, percent carbon-neutral power to make the trip more than worthwhile. Their idea isn't entirely new— Facebook is building data centers in northern Sweden, near the Arctic Circle, to similarly take advantage of natural air conditioning, and the company Advania operates a smaller data center in Iceland as well.

But Verne could be a harbinger of a much bigger trend: Hosting the data of international companies that have nothing to do with Iceland, thousands of miles away from their operation. What make all this possible are the undersea fiber optic cable lines that connect Iceland to Europe and North America. Because fiber optic data travels at the speed of light, a trip from New York to Iceland and back takes about 80 milliseconds.

But plenty of countries are wired with fiber optics. Photo by Joseph Stromberg. One of the first places I visited upon arriving to the country was Irafross hydropower plant on the River Sog , built a few miles downstream from the first plant in and now one of 13 hydropower stations operated by the state-owned power company Landsvirkjun. Given that Iceland is trying to brand itself as a waypoint for the digital information that keeps the world connected, it felt ironic that the minute drive to the power plant from Reykjavik was strikingly sparse and remote.

Craggy, windswept lava flows run underneath high-voltage transmission lines, and grazing sheep dot the landscape. After entering the building, we donned hardhats and descended a four-story concrete spiral staircase, walking past whirling turbines and through a moss-covered access tunnel. In the scheme power plants as a whole, this output, which can power somewhere on the order of 15, homes, is a fairly small number; a typical coal plant can produce megawatts of electricity.

When you plug your television into a wall outlet in Iceland, the juice coming out is entirely carbon-neutral. But for a sparsely populated country of about , a bit larger than the population of Corpus Christi, Texas , this is actually too much power. The nation produces almost twice as much electricity per capita as any other country and is actively trying to figure out what to do with it.

Infrastructure that keeps servers at the correct temperature and humidity at an Iceland data center. Image via Verne Global. A Journey to the Center of the Internet. But shortly after they announced their plans, they were abruptly halted. In , the company purchased an existing warehouse from NATO, repurposed it with their own infrastructure and opened for business, though it is still expanding and filling the space with more servers and machines. Once inside the aluminium-walled warehouse, we strolled through a frigid industrial hall filled with enormous machines.

At the end of the building, a freezing draft blew in through a two story-tall wall made up mostly of air filters.

Earlham Photograph Collection, | Friends Collection and Earlham College Archives

Instead, at this facility, they simply piped in the wind and funneled it towards the backs of the machines. Even so, when we entered the locked aisle that gave access to the front of the servers, the temperature felt like it immediately jumped up 20 degrees or so. Crunching data generates a ton of heat. Cantrell provided cryptic, jargon-filled descriptions of the hardware, but the sci-fi-styled server cage, I was told, looked more or less like all data centers: But the basic idea is this: Due to intake of naturally cold air filters visible along wall at far left , the outer aisles at the Iceland data center are permanently frigid.

One reason is the perception of Iceland as a volatile place to do business. Apart from the financial crisis—from which the country finally seems to be recovering —there are natural disasters. The island itself is a volcano, formed by the continual spreading of the Mid-Atlantic ridge, and a eruption spewed ash that shut down air travel throughout Europe for an entire week.

Associated earthquake activity, though rare, is also a concern. Due to the use of natural air cooling, some worry that volcanic ash could infiltrate the center and interrupt operations, while earthquakes could damage infrastructure. But Verne officials say these concerns are overblown. But for some customers, there may be one problem that persists no matter how many precautions Verne takes: In the past, Google has found that merely increasing the time a search takes from to milliseconds causes a 20 per cent drop in traffic.

Given the unavoidable delays already present computing time, the time it takes for data to cross the continental U. And while Google might be able to build multiple data centers—those in remote, inexpensive places with abundant energy, like Iceland, and those near users specifically built for time-sensitive tasks—smaller companies might not have this luxury, and are forced to put all their eggs in one basket, says James Hamilton , an engineer with Amazon Web Services.

The cheap, carbon-neutral electricity flowing through this equipment might lure companies to host their data in Iceland. For larger companies with flexibility, it may be that getting used to the idea of outsourcing data is the biggest hurdle to overcome—the same way outsourcing call centers was a strange idea, until it became normal. But it seems that Verne might indeed be at the forefront of a trend.

Given the negative publicity companies like Facebook and Apple have received from Greenpeace campaigns protesting their heavy dependence on coal power, the eventual possibility of carbon emission regulations and the resulting increases in energy costs, and the fact that Icelandic utilities offer year fixed-price contracts on carbon-neutral energy for industrial users like power centers, figuring out a way to power data with clean energy in the long term makes a lot of sense. The small lake attracts throngs of tourists while serving as a stepping stone to surrounding wilderness areas of the Rocky Mountains.

Photo courtesy of Flickr user biberfan.

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Year after year, Americans polled by Gallup indicate that they have a strong affinity toward Britain, Germany, Japan, France and India. But Canada consistently scores higher than any other place. Canada is friendly, safe, familiar and mostly English-speaking. Its cities are sophisticated and modern—especially Vancouver, at the edge of both mountain and sea, and Montreal, known largely for its 17th-century architecture. The wild Canadian Rockies resemble their counterpart peaks to the south, but they are less trammeled, less cut by highways and more extensive, running as far north as the lonesome Yukon.

In the rivers of western British Columbia, salmon still teem, as lower Americans can only imagine from black-and-white photos from a century ago. Far to the east, the cod-fishing communities of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia are quaint and cozy, with an irresistible Scandinavian charm. Between grizzly bears, black bears, cougars and wolves, large predators roam virtually every acre of the nation, whereas the lower 48 states have been hacked into a fragile patchwork of preserved places. There are elk, caribou, bison and moose throughout Canada. The brook trout is one of the most beautiful of salmonids and an iconic game fish in eastern Canada.

This brookie, held by angler Bill Spicer, weighs about eight pounds and was caught and released in Osprey Lake, in Labrador. Fly Fishing for the Labrador Brook Trout. Many American anglers know the brook trout as a dainty sliver of fish, speckled beautifully with blue-and-red spots and worm-like vermiculations. But in eastern Canada, the brook trout—actually a species of char—is comfortably at home—and big. The species originated in the streams and lakes here, and nowhere else do brookies grow so huge.

Brook trout as large as 15 pounds or more have been caught throughout eastern Canada, but Labrador is especially famous for its consistently bulky specimens. The Churchill River system—both above and below the foot Churchill Falls—boasts large brook trout, and lots of them. So does the smaller Eagle River system, among other drainages. Local lodges and guide services offer packaged trips based around river fly fishing, in case you need a soft pillow and someone to cook you dinner each night.

More rewarding, if more challenging, can be to go yourself. Other species to expect while pursuing big brooks include northern pike, lake trout, Arctic char and, in some river systems, wild Atlantic salmon. As you hike, watch for bears, moose, eagles and other iconic creatures of the American wilderness.

Photo courtesy of Flickr user dugspr-Home for Good. Rocky shorelines, small winding roads, villages hundreds of years old, mountains, cliffs, clear waters and fjords: With its international airport, the capital city of St. However early North American explorers may have felt about landing upon these blustery shores, for travelers of today, the area is a renowned gem. On the main body of the island of Newfoundland, cyclists also find magnificent exploration opportunities along the north-central coast—a land of deep inlets and rocky islands for hundreds of miles.

But note that distances between grocery stores may be great, so pack food accordingly. Also note that the folks here are reputably friendly, which—in Newfoundland—can translate into moose dinners in the homes of strangers. Pack wine or beer as a gift in return. Then don a wetsuit and go snorkeling. The waters are clear and teeming with sea life and shipwrecks.

Photo by Matt Kadey. Hiking in the Canadian Rockies. Fewer roads mean less noise, less people and more wildlife. A great deal of the Canadian Rockies is preserved within numerous wilderness areas, as well as the famed Jasper and Banff national parks. Cycling is one way to access the vast reaches of wild country here—but no means of motion is so liberating in this rough country as walking. So tie your boot laces at Lake Louise, often considered the queen attraction of the region, or in the town of Banff itself, then fill a pack with all the gear and food of a self-sufficient backpacker and hike upward and outward into some of the most wonderful alpine country of Alberta, and the whole of North America.

Canoeing the South Nahanni River. This tributary of the great Arctic-bound Mackenzie River system is considered the iconic wilderness canoeing experience of Canada and one of the most epic places to paddle on our planet. The region is practically roadless, and while hikers may find their way through the mountains and tundra of the South Nahanni drainage, the most comfortable and efficient means of exploring the area is probably by canoe.

Most paddlers here either begin or end their trips at the enormous Virginia Falls , a spectacular cascade that includes a free-fall of feet and a total vertical plunge of feet—twice the height of Niagara Falls. Others portage around the falls on full-river excursions that can last three weeks. Serious yet navigable whitewater sections can be expected, though most of these rapids occur in the first 60 miles of the river before the South Nahanni lays out en route to the Arctic Ocean.

Not a single dam blocks the way, and wilderness enthusiasts have the rare option of continuing down many hundreds of miles of virgin river, all the way to the sea. Not too close for comfort: Nowhere in the world can tourists get so close to polar bears while remaining so perfectly secure as in Churchill, Manitoba, where polar bears verily swarm the shoreline each fall waiting for the ice to freeze.

Photo courtesy of Flickr user cell-gfx. Americans killed off most of their own big bears—namely the grizzly—as they pushed through the frontier and settled the West. In Churchill , however, locals have learned to live in a remarkably intimate relationship with the greatest bear of all. Polar bears gather along the coast of Hudson Bay in great numbers each autumn as the days shorten and temperatures drop. As long as the sea remains unfrozen, the bears stay around, and sometimes within, the town of people. The animals wrestle, fight, climb over their mothers, roll on their backs and soak in the low-hanging sun, and tourists love it.

The bears are wild animals and may be the most dangerous of all bear species. The bears often approach the vehicles and even stand up against the sides to greet the awed passengers. Between so much adventuring through field, mountain and stream, wine tasting may be a welcomed diversion—and, yes, they make good wine in Canada. The Okanagan Valley of British Columbia is the chief producing region. The valley is also famous for its roadside fruit stands ,where heaps of apples, pears, apricots, peaches and cherries may prove irresistible to those pedaling bicycles.

Giant counterclockwise cyclones in the Gulf of Alaska generate huge swells that manifest, finally, as the things surfers dream of. This giant wave is breaking at Jaws, a legendary site on Maui. Photo courtesy of Flickr user Jeff Rowley. The start of the northern meteorological winter on December 1 will bring with it short days of darkness, blistering cold and frigid blizzards. For many people, this is the dreariest time of the year.

But for a small niche of water-happy athletes, winter is a time to play, as ferocious storms send rippling rings of energy outward through the ocean. By the time they reach distant shores, these swells have matured into clean, polished waves that barrel in with a cold and ceaseless military rhythm; they touch bottom, slow, build and, finally, collapse in spectacular curls and thundering white water.

These are the things of dreams for surfers, many of whom travel the planet, pursuing giant breakers. At many famed breaks, bluffs on the shore provide fans with thrilling views of the action. The waves alone are awesome—so powerful they may seem to shake the earth. But when a tiny human figure on a board as flimsy as a matchstick appears on the face of that incoming giant, zigzagging forward as the wave curls overhead and threatens to crush him, spines tingle, hands come together in prayer, and jaws drop.

Whether you like the water or not, big-wave surfing is one of the most thrilling shows on the planet. Here, foot waves were once considered giants, and anything much bigger just eye candy. But wave at a time, surfers stoked up their courage and ambition. They surfed on bigger days, used lighter and lighter boards that allowed swifter paddling and hunted for breaks that consistently produced monsters. One by one, big-wave spots were cataloged, named and ranked, and wave at a time, records were set.

Fast-forwarding a few decades, Mike Parsons caught a foot breaker in at Cortes Bank, miles off San Diego, where a seamount rises to within three feet of the surface. In , Parsons was back at the same place and caught a footer. But Garrett McNamara outdid Parsons and set the current record in November , when he rode a foot wave off the coast of Portugal, at the town of Nazare. Photo courtesy of Flickr user Michael Dawes. But these later records may not have been possible without the assistance of jet skis, which have become a common and controversial element in the pursuit of giant waves.

The vehicles first began appearing in the surf during big-wave events in the early s, and for all their noise and stench, their appeal was undeniable: Jet skis made it possible to access waves 40 feet and bigger, and whose scale had previously been too grand for most unassisted surfers to reach by paddling. Though tow-in surfing has given a boost to the record books, it has also heightened the danger of surfing, and many surfers have died in big waves they might never have attempted without jet-ski assistance. Not surprisingly, many surfers have rejected tow-in surfing as an affront to the purity of their relationship with waves—and they still manage to catch monsters.

In March , Shane Dorian rode a foot breaker at the famed Jaws break in Maui, unassisted by a belching two-stroke engine. But many big-wave riders fully endorse tow-in surfing as a natural evolution of the sport. For those wishing merely to watch big waves and the competitors that gather to ride them, all that is needed is a picnic blanket and binoculars—and perhaps some help from this swell forecast website. Following are some superb sites to watch surfers catch the biggest breakers in the world this winter.

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Waimea Bay , North Shore of Oahu. Big-wave surfing was born here, largely fueled by the fearless vision of Greg Noll in the s. Fifty-foot waves can occur here—events that chase all but the best wave riders from the water. When conditions allow, elite surfers participate in the recurring Quicksilver Eddie Aikau Invitational.

Spectators teem on the shore during big-swell periods, and while surfers may fight for their ride, you may have to fight for your view. Jaws , North Shore of Maui. Also known as Peahi, Jaws produces some of the most feared and attractive waves on earth. The break—where footers and bigger appear almost every year—is almost strictly a tow-in site, but rebel paddle-by-hand surfers do business here, too. Twenty-one pros have been invited to convene at Jaws this winter for a paddle-in competition sometime between December 7 and March Spectators are afforded a great view of the action on a high nearby bluff.

But go early, as hundreds will be in line for the best viewing points. Also, bring binoculars, as the breakers crash almost a mile offshore. Photo courtesy of Flickr user emilychang. Mavericks , Half Moon Bay, California. The waves of Mavericks crash on a vicious reef, making them predictable sandy bottoms will shift and change the wave form but nonetheless hazardous. One of the best surfers of his time, Mark Foo died here in when his ankle leash is believed to have snagged on the bottom. Later, the waves claimed the life of Hawaiian surfing star Sion Milosky.

A high bluff above the beach offers a view of the action. As at Jaws, bring binoculars. Murky, frigid water breaks in and foot waves every year during periods of high swell at Mavericks. Photo courtesy of Flickr user rickbucich. Ghost Trees , Monterey Peninsula, California. This break hits peak form under the same swell conditions that get things roaring at Mavericks, just a three-hour drive north. Ghost Trees is a relatively new attraction for big-wave riders. Veteran surfer Don Curry says he first saw it surfed in Decades would pass before it became famous, and before it killed pro surfer and a pioneer of nearby Mavericks Peter Davi in For surfing spectators, there are few places quite like Ghost Trees.

Mullaghmore Head , Ireland. Far from the classic Pacific shores of big-wave legend and history, Mullaghmore Head comes alive during winter storms in the North Atlantic. The location produces waves big enough that surfing here has become primarily a jet ski-assisted game. Just how big is Mullaghmore Head? On March 8, , the waves here reached 50 feet, as determined by satellite measurements.

A grassy headland provides an elevated platform from which to see the show. Bundle up if you go, and expect cold, blustery conditions. This coveted break blooms with big swells from the Southern Ocean—usually during the southern winter. Teahupoo is famed for its classic tube breakers. Shipsterns Bluff , Tasmania. Punta de Lobos , Chile. Channeling the energy of the Southern Ocean into huge but glassy curlers, Punta de Lobos breaks at its best in March and April.

The surf usually peaks in the northern winter. There is another sort of wave that thrills tourists and spectators: These moon-induced phenomena occur with regularity at particular locations around the world. The most spectacular to see include the tidal bores of Hangzhou Bay , China, and Araguari, Brazil —each of which has become a popular surfing event.

Members of The Seldom Scene , the influential bluegrass band that first got its start in , after crafting their sound in jam sessions in the banjo player's basement, say they owe their success to a sage piece of advice—Don't quit your day jobs. The group's burgeoning popularity took a back seat to its members' full-time careers.

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Making music was reserved for weekly performances at clubs, sporadic album recordings and the occasional concert or festival. A friend joked to the hobbyists—all professionals in the Washington, D. But the glib prediction couldn't have been less true. The Seldom Scene started playing regular shows at the former Bethesda, Maryland, music club the Red Fox Inn, before switching over to the Birchmere Music Hall in Alexandria, Virginia, where they established a residency. During this time, bluegrass was riding a second wave of mainstream popularity, particularly in Washington, D.

It wasn't long before the Scene made a lasting impression on, well, the scene. This innovative approach to bluegrass gained The Seldom Scene an enthusiastic following. More than four decades later, the group's weathered line-up changes only Ben Eldridge , the banjo and guitar player, has been with the Scene since its inception , untimely deaths beloved singer and founding member John Duffey passed away in and the inevitable challenges of maintaining a fan base in a niche genre while holding down a 9 to 5. According to current lead singer Dudley Connell and bassist Ronnie Simpkins , it's all about having fun.

Their music is a lark, not a livelihood. The Scene's carefree nature belies their influence; over the years, their music has made an indelible mark on the bluegrass world. After receiving a Grammy nomination for 's Scenechronized , the group went on to performed at a White House dinner for the U. Olympic Team in The Scene's latest record, Longtime Seldom Scene , from Smithsonian Folkways is due out April 22, The other members had left to start another group at that time, so it was the two original members, [banjo player] Ben Eldridge and [mandolinist] John Duffey.

But unfortunately, Duffey passed away in , so we worked only one year with him.

I never dreamed of this—that one day, I would be playing base with them. So tell me about the new album, and the new partnership with Folkways. Folkways wanted to archive the group for several reasons: And one of the original members, John Duffey, used to be a member of [bluegrass band] the Country Gentlemen , and they were an artist on the Folkways label years ago. Folkways wanted the band to record our earlier material. I might add that this group has been together now for 16 years without personnel changes. But even amid lineup changes, the Seldom Scene has always been known for tight, three-part harmonies, the dobro and in some songs, intricate guitar intros.

Not taking away anything from the original guys, because they made the sound up to start with. But the songs do change. Two other band mates from the original Seldom Scene line-up are on the new record—vocalist John Starling, who played from to , and bass player Tom Gray, who played until I also heard some rumors about guest performers. John Starling is on this record. You may laugh at this, but we all have day jobs, and so that takes a lot of pressure off of us. When the band was started early on, they looked at it like a weekly card game.

We all get together, and everything just clicks. We had a very busy past year. The bulk of our work, especially in the summertime, is the outdoor bluegrass festivals. We were busy doing those, and quite a few indoor concerts during the spring and winter. We tend to go out and maybe play a Friday or a Saturday or a Sunday—sometimes two days in a row—but usually just out and back, and then we go back to our day jobs during the week. We never did try; we never thought of ourselves as a touring act. The Seldom Scene has been known for pushing the traditional boundaries of bluegrass.

You cover popular songs, you incorporate rock and jazz influences into your melodies. Are you still experimenting as a band? But you know how things change. We may not be the progressive band that we used to be. Why do you think that is? They had a folksy sound to them. On that subject, D. Can you tell me a bit about the history of D. They tended to collect in pockets and communities; they brought their music with them. And as music scenes tend to progress in bars, local people came out and heard it. They heard something they liked, too. Fortunately for us, D. Unlike country music or rock and roll music—well, with the exception of a handful of rock acts, like the Rolling Stones or Bruce Springsteen—in bluegrass, it actually gives you credibility.

I think the same thing is true of blues and Cajun music, and other roots music. It almost actually works to your benefit. I actually saw him sitting there, listening to us and tapping his foot. America has long been the land of innovation. One group of prolific innovators, however, has been largely ignored by history: As a law professor and a licensed patent attorney, I understand both the importance of protecting inventions and the negative impact of being unable to use the law to do so.

But despite patents being largely out of reach to them throughout early U. In many countries around the world, innovation is fostered through a patent system. Patents give inventors a monopoly over their invention for a limited time period, allowing them, if they wish, to make money through things like sales and licensing. As a way to recoup costs, patents provide strong incentives for inventors, who can spend millions of dollars and a significant amount of time developing a invention.

Constitution , with several colonies granting patents years before the Constitution was created. This language gives inventors exclusive rights to their inventions. In , the U. His slave master, Oscar Stewart, attempted to patent the invention. When did a free Negro ever invent anything? Some black inventors achieved financial success but no patent protection, direct or indirect. This invention was of particular value because, during that time, steamboats delivered food and other necessities through often-shallow waterways connecting settlements.

The application was rejected due to his status as a slave. The patent system was ostensibly open to free black people. This legacy extends through the 21st century.

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Black women are also furthering the legacy of black inventors. This story originally included a photo we believed to be Thomas Jennings, the first black holder of a patent, but it was not him. We apologize for the error. The conspirators behind the Lincoln assassination at the gallows.

Behind her filed three other who had plotted to kill President Abraham Lincoln. A sweltering sun beat down on four freshly dug graves and four pine coffins. Only the day before, Surratt had learned that she would be the first woman to be executed by the United States government. Veiled and dressed in black, she swooned after a few steps. Two soldiers and two priests helped her to the gallows. The hangman bound her arms and legs. She complained that the ropes chafed.

They would not hurt long, he replied. And some despised John as a coward who left his mother to die for his crimes. During several years in a Catholic boarding school, she converted to that faith. After failing at farming, the Surratts built a crossroads tavern, then added carriage and blacksmith shops and accumulated a half-dozen slaves.

John became the postmaster—an employee of the federal government—and gave his name to Surrattsville. Mary increasingly managed the business as he drank more and more. When he died, in , she became the proprietor in name as well. As the Civil War raged, she and her family remained proudly loyal to the South. Her older son, Isaac, joined the Confederate Army in Texas. Her younger son, John Jr. Her daughter, Anna, helped with the tavern, which became a key communications link for Confederate spies after John—like other postmasters in Southern Maryland—began inserting northbound messages from Richmond spymasters into the U.

Special messages and cash required hand delivery, and John was adept at clandestine work. John loved the game. Soon he met with John Surratt and confided a daring plan to kidnap Lincoln and exchange the president for Confederate prisoners of war. Perhaps, he implied, Lincoln might even be bartered for an honorable peace between North and South.

At the same time, Mary leased her tavern to a neighbor and opened a boarding house in Washington. She may have had economic reasons for the move, but her new home was well located to aid secret activities. Like her tavern, her boarding house became a way station for Confederate agents. John Surratt and Booth enlisted six men to help them. Most notable was David Herold, who could help with escape routes; George Atzerodt, who could manage the inevitable crossing of the Potomac River, and Lewis Powell, who went by the name Lewis Paine, was a Confederate Army veteran with a taste for violence.

He was taken on to subdue the towering and still-strong president.

Through the first three months of , Mary came to know the conspirators as guests in her home. Her favorite was Booth, who came by most frequently, sometimes just to see her. They made an odd pair—the dashing young actor and the middle-aged landlady, often described as stout, who attended daily Mass—but they shared a fiery commitment to the Southern cause in the face of repeated battlefield defeats. On March 17, Booth, John Surratt and their men armed themselves and set out to kidnap Lincoln as he traveled to a performance for wounded soldiers at a hospital on the outskirts of Washington.

They gathered for a second try in early April—except this time, Booth dropped any pretense of kidnapping. The goal was to murder the president and at least three other Northern leaders: Some two weeks before the assassination, John Surratt had left Washington on a mission to Richmond. From there, he carried Confederate messages to Montreal, moving on to Elmira, New York, where he investigated the prospects for an uprising at a large prison camp.

He would always claim that on the evening of April 14, he was far away from Washington. Under questioning, she revealed nothing. When agents returned two days later, her vague responses confounded them again—until a bedraggled Lewis Paine stumbled to her door. Both he and she were arrested. They would never know freedom again. Atzerodt was captured on April 20 in northwest Maryland; Herold surrendered on April 26, when Union troops surrounded the barn in Virginia where he and Booth had sought refuge.

Booth took a bullet in the neck and died of the wound. By then the federal authorities had four others behind bars: Barely three weeks after the first arrests, all eight of the conspirators went on trial. Four of them—the more fortunate four—would go to prison. With a Confederate army still under arms in Texas, the government insisted that a state of war justified trial before a commission of nine Union Army officers. Public attention focused on the four who were accused of taking part in the assassination—most intensely on Mary Surratt, the lone woman among them.

Prosecutors highlighted her close ties to Booth and her actions on April On that day, she met Booth at her boarding house and then rode to Surrattsville, where she told the tavern manager to expect visitors that night and to give them whiskey and rifles that had been hidden for the kidnapping attempt a few weeks before. When she returned home, she met with Booth again a scant hour before the assassination. That night, Booth and Herold rode to Surrattsville and collected the guns and whiskey.

By aiding their getaway, the prosecution contended, Mary Surratt showed foreknowledge of the crime. The nine commissioners found her guilty of abetting, concealing and assisting the conspirators, but differed over her sentence. They recommended to President Johnson that she be executed, but five of the nine urged him to grant clemency because of her sex and age. With a black veil concealing her face throughout the trial, Mary became a blank screen on which the public could project its attitudes.

Johnson entertained no doubts. He ignored last-minute appeals to spare her life, and sent her to the gallows with Herold, Paine and Atzerodt. The Surratt boarding house in Washington, D. John Surratt stayed in Canada while his mother stood trial. That September he assumed the name of John McCarty, dyed his hair and put on some face makeup tricks he might have learned from Booth and boarded a mail ship for Britain.

In Liverpool, he hid at another Catholic church, then moved through France to Italy. American and papal bureaucracies took seven months to work out the diplomacy niceties, but he was finally arrested in early November—when he managed a last escape, this time to Naples, whence he made his way to Egypt under the name Walters. Four days later, American officials arrested him. He arrived on February 18, , still wearing his zouave uniform. But one crucial factor had changed: With the war over, he faced a civil jury, not a military commission. Some jurors hailed from the South or were Southern sympathizers.

Several tailors from Elmira testified that they saw the defendant in Elmira on April 14, wearing a distinctive jacket. Thirteen prosecution witnesses countered that they saw him in Washington that day, and prosecutors brandished railroad timetables showing John could have traveled from Elmira to Washington to join the plot, then fled to Canada. Two months of trial produced a hung jury: When prosecution blunders prevented a retrial, John walked free. Surefooted in wartime, John struggled in the postwar world. He made a six-month journey to South America.

He tried public lecturing, boasting of wartime exploits but denying a role in the Lincoln assassination, but gave that up, too. More than forty years later, he retired as its general freight agent and auditor. When John Surratt died, at age 72, in April , a new war engulfed the world because an assassin had murdered Austrian Archduke Ferdinand two years before.

Thank you to commenter Jenn for clarifying that John Surratt was found not guilty of plotting to assassinate Lincoln. Stewart has written many historical books and articles. His first novel, The Lincoln Deception , about unraveling the John Wilkes Booth conspiracy, was released today and is now available for purchase. Jampoler, The Last Lincoln Conspirator: In a first of its kind, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution G. Museums, Libraries, and Archives in a Digital Age. As a call to action, Clough charts the course that the Smithsonian will follow in the coming years in digitizing its artifacts, crowdsourcing its research and opening up its collections for public interpretation and consumption.

It is mandatory that museums, libraries, and archives join with educational institutions in embracing it. We sat down with Secretary Clough to learn about his motivation for writing the book, the difficulties in digitizing 14 million objects and his favorite digitization projects so far. I tell people that when I went to Georgia Tech as an undergraduate, the first course I had was how to use a slide rule, and the last one was how to use a computer.

I put the slide rule away, and became very involved with computing. My thesis, at Berkeley, in the 60s, used a CDC machine to simulate complex environments. This kind of technology revolutionized the way we could think about geology and engineering. Later, in my life as a faculty member and an educator, I used computing throughout. As an administrator, I always had people trying to sell me different technological tools that would revolutionize education. When I came to the Smithsonian, it was clear to me that there was a huge potential and that we were finally at a tipping point in terms of the tools that we could use.

What was happening was that everyone had their own devices, and then apps came along, and offered huge possibilities. Social media came along. In those early years, what we did was experiment. So that is the next step, and the book really is the thought process of how you put this together and make it work—keeping the innovative and creative spirit within it, not saying everything has to be the same, but at the same time lift all parts of the Smithsonian up in digitization.

So how do we move everybody up into the game? The opportunities are there for us to reach people everywhere, and to me, the timing is just perfect to implement these ideas. What, in a nutshell, is your vision for the digital future of the Smithsonian?

In 10, 20, or 30 years, what are going to be some of the key ways the Institution embraces digitization and uses it to give access to the public? Looking down the road, we will see people engaged in the creative activities of the Institution. In the past, the creative activities were entirely behind the walls of museums and collection centers. The public only got to access that through labels in exhibitions, which told them what we thought. Now, in this new world, people actually will help us design exhibitions, and it will be interactive.

We have a beta version of a volunteer site , for example, that has several hundred working with us on projects. Essentially, you put up tasks, and volunteers can choose which ones they want to do. They submit their credentials, then, say, transcribe a cursive journal. There are also cases where people know more about certain artifacts than we do. People are going to be engaged with us in a conversation, not a monologue. We have this thing called LeafSnap , an app that identifies tree species based on images of their leaves.

And if you take a picture and tell us you did it, we know where you were, and we know what that tree is. Up at the Harvard-Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, we have the Colorful Cosmos project, where kids in a hundred museums are able to use their telescopes, and those kids are able to talk to Smithsonian scientists. That never would have happened before.

The other thing is that fundamentally, this is going to change the way our Institution works. In the book, you also wrote that you want Smithsonian to digitize 14 million objects as a start. How do you prioritize which objects to make digitally available first? Think about doing that 14 million times. They estimate that would take 50 years, at best. There are a few elements in that. So our art collections, for example, contain around , art objects. So they can do it relatively quickly. Then you put another painting on the wall, and it does that one.

Of the digitization projects the Smithsonian has done thus far, which are some of your favorites?

One of the first things they did was the Kennicott skull , which I keep on my desk and scare people with sometimes. They can paint the things, and they look exactly the same as the original objects. You put the image or file on your iPad and can see the items, play with them. It really brings history alive. Why is it important that the Institution leads in this field? We want to be the best. We have the best collection of stamps, one of the best scientific collections. So if the Smithsonian wants to be a leader in museums, or astronomy, or whatever, it has to be a leader in the digital world.

The other thing is that this gives us a chance to deliver education to every person. And we can tailor the stories we tell based on the audience, and setting. We can be much more considerate and thoughtful about what we provide. We provide teachers with lesson plans, for example, but they tell us that they just want to use them as a basic framework to put their own lessons in. So teachers want a framework, but they want to put their own substance in. The other thing is, once you start putting everything in the cloud, it all becomes a mixed bag.