Personalbeurteilung in Theorie und Praxis (German Edition)

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German to English - Rates: General minimum charge in EUR: Die Theorie kognitiver Dissonanz 4. Die Menge aller Kognitionen einer Person bildet ihr kognitives System. Kognitive Dissonanz entsteht immer dann, wenn eine Person zwischen zwei wahrge-nommenen Kognitionen einen Widerspruch empfindet, d. Eine Vorausset-zung zur Wahrnehmung kognitiver Dissonanz ist eine empfundene Relevanzbeziehung zwischen den beteiligten Kognitionen, denn nicht zwischen allen Kognitionen bestehen Be-ziehungen, wie obiges Beispiel zeigt.

Nach Festinger befindet sich eine Person vor einer Entscheidung bzw. Alle Entscheidungen und daraus folgende Handlungen, z. Zumindest wird durch eine Ent-scheidung ein vorher noch vorhandener Entscheidungsspielraum eingeengt. Bisher haben wir ledig-lich die erwarteten Folgen von Handlungen bedacht. Dazu kommen auch unerwartete Folgen. Kurz nach der Handlung als Vollzug der vorangegangenen Ent-scheidung empfinden Personen eine solche Phase des Bedauerns nach Entscheidung post-decision regret, Festinger, , S. Personen werden sich kurz nach dem Treffen einer Entscheidung bzw.

Die Wahrnehmung von Kognitionen, die mit der Handlung im Widerspruch stehen, also die Wahrnehmung handlungsdissonanter Kognitionen und der daraus resultierende als unange-nehm empfundene Spannungszustand ist die kognitive Dissonanz.

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Kogni-tive Dissonanz steuert das Wahrnehmungs- und Informationsverarbeitungsverhalten. Addition konsonanter Kognitionen geschieht insbes. Es werden also dissonante durch konsonante Kognitionen substi-tuiert. Addition, Subtraktion oder Substitution von Kognitionen als Techniken des Abbauens kognitiver Dissonanz festhalten vgl.

Besonders interessant sind Untersuchungen von Mills , a und b. Dieser Effekt ist einfach mit dem Streben von Personen nach der Vermeidung kognitiver Dissonanz und dem Erhalt kognitiver Konsonanz vereinbar. Dieses wird aufgrund der vielen bereits bekannten konsonanten Informa-tionen als stabil genug empfunden vgl. Diese Annahmen entsprechen der Situation in Abb. Der hier behandelte Aspekt ist mit der Annahme nach dem Streben nach Konsonanz ohne weiteres vereinbar. Sie dienen dem Streben von Personen nach kognitivem Gleichgewicht.

Bevorzugung solcher Informationen, die dazu geeignet sind, kognitive Dissonanz abzubauen oder das vorhandene kognitive System ins Gleichgewicht zu bringen bzw. Kognitive Dissonanz nach forcierter Einwilligung Gelegentlich gibt es Situationen, in denen Personen einer Aussage unter mehr oder weniger sozialem Druck zustimmen, die eigentlich nicht ihren wirklichen Auffassungen entspricht. Die Person erlebt einerseits in ihrem Selbst Kognitionen Meinungen, Auffassungen und andererseits die Selbstbeobachtung ihres Verhaltens, das im Widerspruch zu den Meinungen oder Auffassungen steht.

Beide Arten von Kognitionen stehen ganz offensichtlich in dissonanter Beziehung zueinander. Da damit aber eine Belohnung ausgeschlagen oder eine Bestrafung in Kauf ge-nommen wird, entsteht kognitive Dissonanz. Jetzt hat unsere Person nicht die Folgen der Verweigerung des geforderten Verhaltens vor sich selber zu rechtfertigen, sondern die meinungsdiskrepante Verhaltensweise. Ist das Honorar sehr hoch, so hat unsere Person kaum einen Rechtfertigungsdruck. Sie befindet sich am rechten Ende der Kurve.

Kognitive Dissonanz nach forcierter Einwilligung Festinger, , S. Nach der Reformulierung der Theorie durch Irle , S. Es wird also eine Zusammenhangs-hypothese zwischen Anstrengung und Erfolg aufgestellt. Dieser empfundene Zusammenhang ist eine notwendige dritte Kognition zur Entstehung kognitiver Dissonanz. Formal stellt sich das wie folgt dar: Diese wird als Kognition Z bezeichnet. Die exakte Aussage bei Irle , S.

Konsonante kognitive Systeme entsprechend der Theorie kognitiver Dissonanz nach Irle , Dissonante kognitive Systeme entsprechend der Theorie kognitiver Dissonanz nach Irle , Bis hierher ist die Theorie kognitiver Dissonanz nach Irle als eine Erweiterung der Theorie von Festinger aufzufassen. Die Formulierung eines Problems ist eine erste Entscheidung, die Frage, welche Informa-tionen beschafft werden sollen, eine weitere. Auch die Auswahl der zu konstruierenden Alternativen unterliegt Entscheidungen.

Auch die Kontrolle beinhaltet viele Detailentscheidungen: Festinger bezieht sich lediglich auf die Phase nach der Auswahlentscheidung. Damit wird die reformulierte Theorie der kognitiven Dissonanz zu einer sehr umfassenden allgemeinen Theorie der Informationsverarbeitung. Nach Festinger , S.

Je mehr andere Personen eine Hypothese ebenfalls aufrecht halten, um so eher wird an die Richtig-keit dieser Hypothese geglaubt. Wie nehmen folgendes Beispiel: Eine Person lebe mit folgenden Kognitionen: Eine stark vernetzte Kognition ist z. Derartige Kognitionen spielen nicht so eine zentrale Rolle im Leben einer Person, wie die voran genannten. Die Verbundenheit mit einer Ange-legenheit, also auch einer Kognition, ist das Commitment.

Wir haben hier mehrere Stufen zunehmenden Commitments kennengelernt. Balancierte und unbalancierte Situationen nach Heider , , Allerdings ignorieren sie dabei sowohl die Theorie von Heider , und als auch die Reformulierung von Irle und alle empirischen Arbeiten zur selektiven und damit dissonanztheoretisch relevanten Informationssuche von Frey u. Es geht dabei allerdings nicht nur um Werbung als Instrument der Marketing-Kommunikation.

Ein weiterer wichtiger Anwendungsbereich ist das Social-Marketing. Frey und Irle , S. Jede Wahrnehmung, die ihren Annahmen widerspricht, ist ein Fall des Emp-findens kognitiver Dissonanz. Diese kann durch Uminterpretation des Wahrgenommenen relativ leicht abgebaut werden. In Wirklichkeit ist das nichts anderes als ein fast schon stereotyper Mechanismus zum Abbau kognitiver Dissonanz. Hat eine Person vorher z. Ein weiteres relevantes Feld menschlichen Verhaltens sind in diesem Zusammenhang Ent-scheidungen im Management nicht nur kommerziell ausgerichteter Organisationen.

Das betrifft Personalentscheidungen, Einkaufsentscheidungen, Strategieentscheidungen und vieles mehr. Ein Beispiel einer Einkaufsentscheidung mag das verdeutlichen: Vielmehr wurde eine neue Chance genutzt. Dabei geht es um Reak-tionen auf wahrgenommene Freiheitseinengung, beispielsweise durch Kommunikation Diese Theorie hat einen engen Bezug zur Theorie kognitiver Dissonanz. Commitment to exposure as a determinant of information receptivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, , 2, Postdecision exposure to relevant information.

Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, , 54, Cigarette smoking and lung cancer: A study of cognitve dissonance. Australian Journal of Psychology, , 14, A theory of cognitive dissonance. Conflict, decision, and dissonance. Post-decision regret and decision reversal. Zwei aktuelle Forschungsrichtungen in der Dissonanztheorie: Postdecisional preference for decision-relevant information as a function of the competence of its source and the degree of familiarity with this information.

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, a , 17, 51 — Informationssuche und Informationsbewertung bei Entscheidungen. Studies in decision making - social psychological and socio-economic analyses. Informationssuche von Konsumenten nach Entscheidungen. Marketing, ZFP, , 6, — Die Theorie der kognitiven Dissonanz.

Theorien der Sozialpsychologie, Band I: Theorien der Sozialpsychologie, Band II: Gruppen- und Lerntheorien 2. The psychology of interpersonal relations. Psychologie der interpersonellen Beziehungen. The notebooks edited by Marjiane Benesh-Weiner , Vol. Die Theorie der kognitiven Dissonanz: Leon Festinger, Theorie der kognitiven Dissonanz.

Studies in decision making — social psychological and socio-economic analyses. Konvergenz und Divergenz in Gruppen. Bern, Stuttgart, Wie Translation - German 4. The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance 4. Humans experience states of tension of various kinds to be unpleasant, in connection with the need to resolve this tension. This theory originates with Festinger for whom cognition was the starting point of dissonance theory; he gave the following definition of cognition: This means that between these many cognitions there are more or less varied and intense relationships.

For example, a close relationship might arise between striving toward health and the taking of different types of medicine, whereas, there is no cognitive relationship between preferences with regard to different wines and the currently experienced air temperature in Moscow. Felt cognitive dissonance leads to activities oriented toward reducing dissonance, just as humans experience the need to reduce hunger. Cognitive dissonance always arises whenever a person feels that there is an opposition between two perceived cognitions, which is to say that dissonance arises when psychologically, based on the assumptions of a cognition, the opposite then follows based on the assumptions of another cognition.

An experienced relevant relationship between the cognitions involved, not present between all cognitions, is a prerequisite for the perception of cognitive dissonance, as the above example shows. Perhaps the most well known example for the arising of cognitive dissonance is that of the smoker who receives information that smoking has negative consequences for health, who at the same time is haunted by a desire for health.

According to Festinger a person faced with a decision, for instance when action is called for in a conflict having to choose between alternatives , will thereafter be in state of cognitive dissonance having to justify the chosen alternative. All decisions and the actions coming from them, e. The statement that in actuality all decisions and actions also have negative aspects may not make sense at first. These negative consequences however stand in opposition to the decision and corresponding action. The perception of them triggers cognitive dissonance.

Why in reality all decisions and their subsequent actions in addition to their positive consequences also have negative consequences, will be explained in the following. Lets assume that a person has to choose between two alternatives. Both alternatives may have advantages and disadvantages. The specific disadvantages and the lost specific advantages of the rejected alternative are the disadvantages of the chosen alternative. Where are the undesired consequences then? There will at least be a decreased range of options than there was before.

Other possible decisions can no longer be casually made; one would have to at least go back on the previous decision. This substantiates the statement that all decisions also have undesirable consequences. So far we have only been thinking of the expected consequences of actions. In addition there are unexpected consequences. As long as these consequences are not desired, in encountering them the apprehension of cognitive dissonance can be factored in. In the phase directly following an action people obviously experience the negative consequences of the action especially intensely, assessing their importance more highly.

At the same time the desired aspects may even be devalued for a short time. Shortly after the action as the execution of a preceding decision people experience regret with regard to their decision post-decision regret, Festinger, , p. The perceived negative aspects of a decision stand in opposition to the choice that was made, thereby triggering cognitive dissonance. People will become aware of this dissonance shortly after making a decision or taking an action and will tend to regret the decision or action.

In the regret phase the original action is re-examined, which basically entails that the search for and processing of information will be organized toward the end of justifying the original action. Cognitive dissonance is the apprehension of cognitions that stand in opposition to an action, i. This leads to the person engaging in actions meant to reduce dissonance or to eliminate it altogether if possible.

Cognitive dissonance affects both perceptual and information processing behavior. The greater the dissonance is experienced to be, the greater the motivation will be to dispose of it, and presumably the greater will be the tendency to selectively perceive information and to process it with the aim of reducing dissonance. In general people who are experiencing cognitive dissonance have the following options for reducing or avoiding cognitive dissonance. In examining these we are assuming a system of cognitions between which either consonant or dissonant relationships can arise.

In general people have the following options toward the aim of reducing dissonance after actions: The cognitions that activate dissonance are eliminated. In the first order this can take place through shunning whatever information stands in opposition to the chosen action. Dissonance triggering information can also be evaluated as irrelevant by the given person. The addition of consonant information occurs particularly with regard to searching for information with the intent of supporting the actions just taken, through revaluation of the source of the information, with an eye toward believability, competence, and relevance.

The addition of consonant information is often combined with the elimination of dissonant information; dissonant cognitions are substituted with consonant cognitions. When information is perceived as dissonant the original goals may be reinterpreted and reassessed.

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A person coming to the belated conclusion that the new car is not quite as sporty as he would have liked, changes his opinion to the effect of: In retrospect the dissonance triggering action can be denied; one was influenced by others and so one is actually not at all responsible for the action. The denial of an action or of responsibility for an action can be understood as a form of elimination of cognitions.

Finally it is possible to revise the action. The revising of an action can also be presented as a form of elimination or substitution of cognitions. These various possibilities are often combined. Addition, subtraction elimination , and substitution of cognitions are techniques for reducing cognitive dissonance cf.

They found that after buying a car, the purchasers of this car brand preferred advertisements featuring that brand. This observation alone is not quite enough in order to substantiate the dissonance effect, since other explanations are available for the effect: Just the fact of owning a car of a particular brand can account for increased attentiveness with regard to ads for that brand. However, on the basis of many empirical studies it can be said that after taking actions people seek information that supports those actions, and avoid information that opposes the action.

The studies undertaken by Mills are especially interesting , a and b. Here we see that the interest for an ad for the chosen brand as opposed to the rejected brand is particularly pronounced when both brands are especially similar to each other. The interest for the chosen brand can be interpreted to be the dissonance avoidance effect. On the other hand Mills was not able to thoroughly prove that in all experiments ads for the rejected alternative were selectively avoided. Supportive information was preferred, but unsupportive information was not clearly avoided.

The dissonance avoidance effect was also not always confirmed in other studies Feather, , and Brock, Here the problem is that actually in many of the studies dissonance reduction effects were displayed, but not consistently. On the basis of theoretical considerations and on the basis of the empirical results that had been gathered so far Festinger , p. In the case of very intense cognitive dissonance both effects will quickly decrease and reverse as much as possible into tolerable information regarding the opposing object.

In the end opposing information will be even be sought and supportive information avoided, because theoretically a revising of the action will have taken place as the most intense form of cognitive dissonance reduction. Frey and , a , as well as Frey and Benning , render these conditions more precisely. The consonant information that is difficult to disprove is more useful in terms of the stability of the cognitive system. The possible disproving of dissonant information also leads to a stabilization of the cognitive system, whereas dissonant information that is difficult to disprove threatens the stability of the system.

It could trigger cognitive dissonance that is not easily reduced. The system will be experienced as being stable enough as result of already having lots of information known to be consonant. The revised version of the decision will then be able to process or lessen the effect of further dissonant information. Information that is dissonant with regard to the original decision is at the same time consonant with the revised decision.

This approach corresponds with the situation in fig. A situation where a revision of the decision is considered possible is a prerequisite for this effect. If a revision does not seem to be possible, then even in the face of increasing dissonance, consonant information will continue to be searched for in order to alleviate the dissonance. The aspect being discussed here can without qualification be equated to striving for consonance.

The mechanisms detailed above are compatible with the original consistency assumptions. Essentially all of these cases have to do with two mechanisms of information gathering and processing: Cognitive Dissonance due to Forced Compliance Occasionally situations arise where a person agrees to a viewpoint that does not actually reflect his or her true views, due more or less to social pressure. On the one hand the person experiences self cognitions opinions, perceptions and on the other hand observes his own behavior, which he sees is in opposition to his opinions or perceptions.

Both types of cognition clearly stand in a dissonant relation to each other. How people cognitively react in this situation is the subject matter of the forced compliance paradigm Festinger, , p. A person can be made to engage in a dissonant public stating of opinion via threat of punishment or by being offered rewards.

The felt dissonance intensity depends first of all on the importance of the given opinion, and secondly on the extent of the reward or punishment. These interrelationships are illustrated in fig. In the left hand area of the three curves there is as yet no expression of self-contradictory opinion; the reward or possible punishment is not high enough to trigger it. Now the person does not have to contend with justifying the consequences of avoiding the self-contradictory behavior, but instead has to justify the self-contradictory behavior that she is now displaying.

If the reward is very high, or the threatened punishment very intense, then the person, by considering the radical consequences, can easily justify her self-contradictory behavior.

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The person may take on a contract that goes against her own opinion, but the financial reward is high. If the financial reward is high enough, the person will have very little pressure to justify herself. She will find herself on the right side of the curve. Cognitive dissonance due to forced compliance Festinger, , p. Seen from the right the curve proceeds to the point of highest dissonance, which has been triggered by the decrease in reward or threat of punishment.

The person has displayed the self-contradictory behavior, but in return has received an ever lower reward or has avoided an increasingly minor punishment, whereby in both cases it is enough to trigger the self-contradictory behavior. Viewed from the right, finding himself just before the peak point in the situation of highest cognitive dissonance, the person has to justify to himself the self-contradictory behavior he has displayed, with regard to having received a relatively low reward or having avoided a relatively minor punishment.

The three curves shift to the right as the significance of the opinion increases because this increasing significance entails that the extent of the reward or threat of punishment must also increase in order to trigger behavior which contracts the opinion. Cognitive Dissonance and the Search for Social Support People are more likely to believe themselves to be in the right, the more other people there are of like mind. Perceiving that another person holds a differing opinion can trigger cognitive dissonance, therefore people seek social support for their opinions Festinger, , p.

However, Festinger holds that there is also an additional range of objective factors: Dissonance intensity and the question of which cognitions it involves, do not have anything to do with the question of so-called objective or social factors.

The intensity of cognitive dissonance that arises depends on how relevant the given opinion is for the respective people or groups. The extent of cognitive dissonance is determined by the consensus of opinions of these people with regard to the perceived competence, attractiveness, and by the experienced significance of the opinion in question.

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If a divergent opinion is held by experts competence , or by good friends attractiveness , then the experienced dissonance is relatively high. Whether or not a high degree of dissonance is encountered within a group depends on group cohesion and on the importance of the opinion for that group.

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The divergent opinion held by others can also be devalued, or the subject matter of the opinion can be devalued as far as its relevance or importance is concerned. The subject matter of the opinion will be devalued when those holding it cannot be won over and yet display a high degree of attractiveness. In the case of both a high degree of opinion significance and of attractiveness on the part of those who hold the opinion, as a reaction to experienced cognitive dissonance an adaptation to the divergent opinion is likely.

And finally there will also be the above described selective gathering of information avoidance of dissonant and search for consonant information. The communication within groups can also be explained according to the striving for social support: A person is more likely to communicate with other group members who express divergent opinions , the more he expects them to be able to adapt to the group opinion, the more important the person is as a member of the group, the greater the divergence of opinion is, the more important the given opinion is for the group, and the more important the group or group cohesion is for its members Irle, We can establish that in general people look for social support of their opinions and that the tendency is to attempt to win over those who hold divergent opinions.

One can also attempt to win over people for whom the given opinion subject matter is in no way relevant, in which case it will be relatively easy to obtain agreement Festinger, , p. The factor of seeking social support by way of reducing cognitive dissonance is also used by Festinger , pp.

An assumption here is that there be a mass of people who share the same psychic situation and all experience the same cognitive dissonance: Rumors, mass hysteria, mass proselytism, simultaneous faulty perception on behalf of many people which is pointed out as being such, and also the fear of many people in a region with regard to imminent catastrophe, when there is no objectively substantiated reason for it ibid.

Irle does not fundamentally distinguish between actions and cognitive decisions. We can also consider these to be hypotheses held by the person. All people operate according to subjective hypotheses that explain the relationships between two cognitions on the one hand, and on the other hand the individual cognitions are also subjective hypotheses. A A relationship between two hypotheses might be: A hypothesized relationship between striving and achieving success has been established.

B A single subjective hypothesis as a cognition might read: This person will therefore experience cognitive dissonance if he has to experience a case where he or someone else tries hard and then does not achieve success, or if the person sees a black swan for the first time. The following mechanisms are conceivable as means for reducing cognitive dissonance while not claiming it is a complete list…: This certainly does not mean that people themselves experience their perceptual behavior as an instance of hypothesis testing, which consequently leads to merely operating according to assumed knowledge.

In reality private people, scientists, politicians, and managers conduct themselves according to affirmed items of knowledge on the basis of their perceptions. That this approach may not be logically and empirically consistent with reality is a practically irrefutable meta-statement, which however is not understood by the majority of people. For Irle cognitive dissonance takes place when a person encounters two cognitions which are logically inconsistent, but between which there is a connection.

This felt connection is a third cognition necessary for the arising of cognitive dissonance. The psychological inconsistency of cognitions that are seen to be in connection with each other but which however need not stand in a logical relationship to each other can result from facts or values: This can be expressed formally in the following way: People have formed the hypothesis that if set of conditions X as the first cognition is encountered, then another set of conditions Y will also be encountered as the second cognition and therefore a third cognition will be adhered to with regard to the relationship between X and Y.



This is labeled as cognition Z. Students might adhere to cognition X: The assumed relationship between effort and result is cognition Z. Professors might adhere to the following X cognition: These cognitive mini systems are consonant with others, like where students assume that they will not do well if they are not well prepared formally: Consonant cognitive systems in the theory of cognitive dissonance according to Irle , Dissonant cognitive systems in the theory of cognitive dissonance according to Irle , It does not just have to do with explaining information gathering and processing after decisions.

A person who makes a decision continuously finds himself simultaneously in a before and after decision phase. In order to make this clearer we will examine a simple decision process. The formulation of a problem is a first decision, and the decision of what information should be gathered is a further decision. Also underlying the decision is the choice with regard to formulating alternatives. The assessment of alternatives assumes that the assessment criteria have been decided in advance. It is certainly undeniable that the choice of alternatives also entails other decisions: When should the decision be taken, what is being decided about the choice of alternatives, whether further information should be gathered, whether the problem should be scrutinized again, who should undertake the implementation?

The same goes for the phase of realization. The testing phase also includes detailed decisions: When should the testing take place, according to what standards of measurement, how often, with what methods? Every individual element with the decision making process presents its own decision making process, which again can be divided into a never ending process of further decision making processes.