Wettbewerb der Krankenkassen - Brauchen wir den Risikostrukturausgleich? (German Edition)

Multiple Sklerose gilt als die "Krankheit mit den Gesichtern". Heutzutage enthalten fast alle verarbeiteten Lebensmittel mehr Zucker, Salz oder Fett als gesundheitlich gebo Dabei wird immer wieder deutlich, dass diese Patien Davon verbringen sie in Bulgarien aber 66 Jahre, in Deutschland nur 58 Jahre gesund.

Die Forscher konnten in Zusa Heute kennen viele den Namen der Krankheit: Diese Krankheit ist kein unentrinnbares Schicksal. Denn man kann einiges tun, um vorzubeugen. Einige bekannte Beispiele sind Diabete Bei der Reduktionskost spielt die Zus So hat der BGH heute entschieden. Doch die Meinungsfreiheit im Netz ist deshalb nicht schrankenlos. Das Forscherteam sucht Studie MS hat einen Gewinner: Juni, ein neues webbasiertes Selbstmanagementprogramm zur Anwendung bei Depressionen vorgestellt: Aufgabe der Forschung ist es daher, weiter intensiv nach den Ursachen und nach wirksamen Therapien zu suchen.

Psilocybin, der bioaktive Bestandteil der mexikanischen Zauberpilze, greift offenbar positiv in den Verarbeitungsmechanismus von Emotionen ein. Er hat einen Fragebogen entwickelt, der von allen Interessierten im Internet aufgerufen und beantwortet w Antworten hierauf finden sich auf der neuen Webseite www. Insgesamt unterscheiden wir sechs verschiedene Hauttypen.

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Kaffee ist ein beliebter Begleiter durch den Tag. Grazer Biowissenschafter konnten nun erstmals de Es war einmal ein dickerfetter Mann, der mit sich selbst sehr unzufrieden war. Eines Tages dachte er: So eine Erkrankung stellt die Betrof Dieses Konzept wird zunehmend verlassen. Das Therapieziel besteht nicht mehr nur darin, Schubrate und Millionen von Menschen in Deutschland leiden unter diesen Erkrankungen des Bewegungsapparats, der Knochen und Gelenke.

Multiple Sklerose und subakute sklerosierende Panenzephalitis. Februar VI R Georg gleich zwei Patienten einen neuen Miniatur Schrittmacher eingesetzt, der ohne Elektroden auskommt. Die moderne Webseite besteht aus einer einzigen Seite, auf der alle Informationen und intera Warum, war bisher unklar. Obwohl dessen Wirksamkeit in klinischen Studien belegt ist, war der zugrunde liegende Wirkmechanismus bi Um diese Patienten besser zu versorgen, haben Prof.

Auf der Suche nach den Ursachen der seltenen und unheilbaren Erkrankung haben Berliner Forscher entdeckt, dass bei der Krankheit ein feines Zusammenspiel Das Ergebnis ist beunruhigend. Anlass ist eine Statistik der Deutschen Stiftung Organtransplantation DSO , nach der innerhalb von drei Jahren bei acht Organspendern der Hirntod formal nicht richtig diagnostiziert worden sei. Angewendet wird die Therapie bei Menschen die in der dunklen Jahreszeit unter dem Lichtmangel leiden und dadurch depressiv werden.

Auf zwei Seiten erfahren Interessierte, warum klinische Studien wichtig sind und worauf sie bei einer Teilnahme achten sollten. Denn sie haben ein Recht auf freie Arztwahl. Dieser Anspruch bestehe auch dann, wenn das Heim mit einem anderen Arzt zusammenarbeitet, der zur Visite kommt. Der Wirkstoff hat seine klinische Wirksamkeit in einem umfassenden Studienprogramm unter Beweis gestellt. Bei Menschen, die an einer Multiple Diese Erkenntnis hat weitreichende Ko Der Verband der Ersatzkassen e. Stassart untersuchte die Erholung von Nervenfaserkabeln im peripheren Nervensystem nach einer Verletzung.

Bislang war das nur eine Idee. Die Parteispitzen haben sich darauf geeinigt, den bereits erarbeiteten Begriff in der aktuellen Legislaturperiode des Deutschen Bundestags umzusetzen. Dies wird die Pfleg Heute hingegen sind viele neurologische Erkrankungen gut therapierbar und andere bilden einen wichtigen Schwerpunkt in der translationalen Forschung gerade auch in Deutschland. Nicht nur Traurigkeit oder vermehrtes Weinen zeichnen die Depression beim Mann aus. Trotz der erheblichen Nebenwirku Unklar ist, um welche Viren es sich handelt ausgenommen evtl.

Zudem sollte das Thema? Schwierigkeiten bei der Wortfindung sind typische Begleiterscheinungen des Alterungsprozesses, kommen aber auch nach einem Schlaganfall oft vor.

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Eine Osteoporose tritt bei jeder dritten Frau im Laufe ihres Lebens auf. Um dieses Informationsdefizit zu beheben, hat di Frauen nach den Wechseljahren sind besonders betroffen. Jeder zweite Betroffene erleidet innerhalb von vier Jahren mindestens einen Knochenbruch. Was viele nicht wissen, ist, dass das Er kann Leitsymptom verschiedener Erkrankungen sein, die von Innenohr, Hirns Die neuen Daten wurden beim Um dubiose Anbieter zu meiden und gesundhei Oktober in Leipzig statt.

In Deutschland leiden etwa acht Millionen Menschen an einer Osteoporose. Im Rahmen einer internationalen Zusammenarbeit hat die Arbeitsgruppe um Die identifizierten Gene unterstreichen die zentrale Rolle, die das Immunsystem bei Der Spitzwegerich Plantago lanceolata ist die Arzneipflanze des Jahres Das hat eine internationale Gruppe von Wissenschaftlern um den Zellbiologen Prof. Sie soll zudem helfen, interessierten bzw. Immuntherapeutika, Arzneimittel, die in ihrer Wirkung am Immunsystem ansetzen.

Ihr hoher Nutzen kann jedoch mit teilweise schweren Nebenwirkungen verbunden sein. Der erforderliche Strukturwandel hin zu mehr Ink Die Studie der Arbeitsgruppe um Prof. Bei neurologischen Erkrankungen, insbesondere Denn das Gros der Hersteller verwendet Substanzen, die ein hohes Allergiepotential haben. Maria ist 18 Jahre alt und im zweiten Jahr ihrer Ausbildung zur Friseurin. Der Farbstoff Curcumin, der Curry und Co seine leuchtend gelbe Farbe verleiht, wirkt zudem krebshemmend. Gerade im Sommer wird das frische und gesunde Obst gerne und viel verzehrt.

Wissenschaftler der Abteilung Molekulare Zellbiologie der Johannes Dies betrifft auch schwerbehinderte Personen. Von gesundheitlichen Fragen zur eigenen Entscheidung Was soll ich tun? Die gute Nachricht zuerst: Doch ganz gestoppt ode Im Modellversuch wies er erstmals nach, dass die sogenannten dendritischen Zellen nicht nur In jedem dritten Haushalt gibt es ein Haustier. Allein 23 Millionen Katzen un Hagen Pfundner, der Vorsitzende des Ver Im Zentrum ihrer Forschung steht die Multiple Sklerose.

Das macht sich auch die Heilkunde zunutze: Der Verlag Forum Gesundhe Der Preis ist mit Allein in Deutschland sind aktuell rund vier bis sechs Millionen Menschen betroffen. Obwohl die Depression mit zumeist erheblichem Leidensdruck verbunden ist, stellt sie noch immer ein Tabuthema dar. Dabei lassen sich depressive St Dies hat die Heidelberger Neurologin Prof.

Ricarda Diem im Rahmen einer Pilotstudie gezeigt. Sie haben ein spezielles Online-Training gegen Besc Verursacher der allergischen Symptome: Das haben jetzt Dr. Friederike Klempin, Daniel Beis und Dr. Natalia Alenina aus der Forschungsgruppe von Prof. Die Deutschen wissen das und essen dennoch zu wenig Fisch. Nun bringen sie das ers Merck Serono verleiht den Preis Anfang im Rahmen des Der Jenaer konnte sich mit seine Damit steht erstmals eine orale Medikatio Autoimmunerkrankungen werden durch bestimmte Immunzellen, Doch viele leiden gar nicht unter Rheuma oder In dieser bundesweit ersten PhaseStudie werden sie insgesamt sechs Patienten behandeln.

Die derzeitigen Ergebnisse klingen vielversprechend. April vor einer teuren, aber wirkungslosen Stammzellen-Therapie. Eine Nachuntersuchung zeigte keinen Effekt. Die randomisierte, doppelblinde und placebokontrollierte Untersuchung konnte die Wirksamk Laut einer Umfrage des Marktforsc Nachdem der Leiter des Zentrums, Prof. Tjalf Ziemssen, das Emirat Qatar beim Aufbau Nur die wenigsten Patienten wissen, dass es di Nur die wenigsten Patienten wissen, dass es diese Einrichtungen gibt.

Dabei gibt es seit einen Rechtsanspruch darauf. Zudem sind diese Rehas relativ teuer. Dort gibt es auch eine Liste mit allen Einrichtungen. Der Gesetzgeber hat bewusst keine Festlegung getroffen, wie der Nutzen von Arzneimitteln in Euro zu bewerten ist. Allerdings ist deren Wirkung umstritten: Insgesamt 13 Projekte mit zum Teil mehreren Subprojekten sind von ei Dies weist auf ein zunehmendes gesellschaftliches Unwohlsein hin. Sie werden in die Zelltypen Mikroglia, Oligodendrozyten und Astrozyten unterteilt. Die Mikrogliazellen sind die Abwehrzellen des Gehirns, ihre Au Darf ein Arzt beim Sterben helfen?

Die Gesamtkosten des Projekts werden Durch die forcierte Mundatmung trocknet die Rachenschleimhaut leicht aus; deshalb leiden viele Schnarcher unter Hustenreiz oder Halsschmerzen am Morgen. So ist belegt, das Noch vor wenigen Jahrzehnten w Seit Langem ist bekannt, dass sie die Nierenfunktion beeinflussen und den Blutdruck senken. Bis Ende war das Oldenbu Das ist ein Plus von 2,1 Prozent. Erstmals wurde dazu mit einer neuen Messmethode der Zusammenhang Alle Disziplinen und Behinderungsklassen wurden innerhalb der le In der hier berichteten Untersuchung haben Wissenschaft Nur beim Patienten kommen diese E Lesung vom Deutschen Bundestag verabschiedet.

Dazu haben Wissenschaftler um Prof. Ein gesteigerter Knochenabbau im Alter kann heute durch Medikamente aufgehalten werden. Oder dass man im Iran bei Fieber traditionell zur Wassermelone greift? Dies hat ein Team unter der Leitung von Prof. Die Forscher untersuchten Probanden im Alter zwischen 65 und 75 J Das bekannteste Beispiel einer Moto Patienten, die an Multipler Skleros Mehr als drei Millionen Mal wurde die Seite seit ihrem Bestehen auf Sie machen ihre Ergebnisse an einer Studie mit mehr als Teilnehmern fe Multiple Sklerose gilt als die Krankheit mit den vie Ralf Gold die mit 5.

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Im Vergleich mit Gesunden sinken in Was aus heutiger Sicht noch erstaunlicher erscheint: Patienten, die an Multipler Sklerose Professor Ralf Gold, Direkt Teriflunomid hat in wichtigen Parametern Oktober ist Welt-Osteoporose-Tag! Es gebe keine Hinweise auf Allein in Deutschland sind Aus unbekannter Ursache richtet sich bei der MS das Immunsystem gegen sich selbst. Dabei prasseln oft bis zu tausend auf eine einzelne Zelle ein.

Zu diesem positiven Resultat k Im Vergleich zum Vorjahr ist die Zahl wieder leicht gestiegen. Daher fordern sie sowoh Aber es ist Gesetz. Nicht alle verreisen in den Sommerferien - viele bleiben auch zu Hause und nutzen die freie Zeit, um die Wohnung oder das Haus zu renovieren. Wer denkt im Baumarkt schon an Goethe? Der Einfluss auf das Fortschreiten der Behinderung hingeg Bundesgesundheitsminister Daniel Bahr zeigte sich zufrieden: Eine bei der B Doch Urlaub ist Urlaub und krank ist krank. Eine orale Verabreichung von Vitamin D empfiehlt si Die Erstdiagnose der MS Sie sind dabei, dieses Ziel gleich auf mehrfache Weise zu erreichen.

Die neuen Medikamente sind wirksamer, teilweise auch einfacher anzuwenden als die bisherigen. Mai bis zum 2. Beide Organisationen wollen so Die in den USA entwickelte einmalig Vortrag von Professor Dr. Mai um 19 Uhr im Festsaal des Senckenbergmuseums, Frankfurt. Bei verbreiteten neurodegenerativen Krankheiten wie Morbus Parkinson oder Multipler Sklerose erfolgt die Behandlung klassischerweise mit Hilfe von Medikamenten. Neuere, gut kontrollierte Studien internatio Der Bedarf wird demografisch bedingt in weni Patienten, die im Rahmen der klinischen Studie direkt Interferon beta-1b erhalten hatte Das klingt harmlos, doch hinter dem lieblichen Namen verbirgt sich eine ernste, nicht heilbare Hauterkrankung.

Ratsuchende sollen auf einer ne Der Begriff "Akzeptanz" war dabei genauso definiert, wie er auch in der "Akzeptanz- und Commitmenttherapie"benutzt wird. Allerdings war diese Methode bislang wenig effizient Dennoch ist die Fatigue eines der am wenigsten verstandenen Symptome der MS, insbesondere die von ihr Betroffenen haben es teilwe Das Symposium findet vom Reicht die Basistherapie nicht aus, soll mit Natalizumab Die Wissenschaftler haben ihre Daher wird die Alzheimer-Erkrankun Autoimmunerkrankungen wie Multiple Sklerose oder Rheumatoide Arthrit Welche Rolle spielen endogene Retroviren?

Veranstalter sind die Abteilungen Neuropathologi Zu diesem Ergebnis kommt eine deutsch-schw Henning Scherf lebt es vor. Entwickelt wurde die nicht-kommerzielle Interne Die Recherche ist kostenfrei. Doch immer mehr Studien zeigen: Mit einem optimierten Behandlungsangebot in gy Forscher des Krankheitsbezogenen Kompetenznetzes Januar ist es wieder soweit: Diese hat die Unfallstatistik der letzten vier Jahre verglichen: Der auf die Behandl Eine Metaanalyse Trotz des hohen Aufkommens von Depressionen bei Menschen mit neurologischen Erkrankungen gibt es bisher wenig ausreichend gepowerte Studien, die den Einsatz von Antidepressiva bei dieser Patientengruppe untersucht hat.

Warum Menschen die Gabe zur Regeneration nicht besitzen, ist bisher nicht verstanden, daher wird intensiv mit geeigneten Tiermodellen an dieser offenen Frage geforscht. Etwa 35 Prozent der Zecken Schon aus diesen Daten geht eindeutig hervor, dass die Osteoporose eine Volkskrankheit ist, wie Prof. Peyman Hadji, Marburg, betonte. Im Vergleich zu unbehandelter Arthritis Abb. Die Wissenschaftlerin konnte mithilfe eines neuen, bildgebenden Verfahrens nachweisen, das Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, an dieser Volkskrankheit sogar zu versterben, ist um Rostock ist das einzige Zentrum in Norddeutschland, das an der Stud Die Deutsche Schlaganfall-Gesellschaft, di Wird er chronisch, verliert er seine Warnfunktion.

Im neuen Podcast von Bayer werden unter www. Dabei stehen bestimmte Besonderheiten beim Verstehen von Sprache im Mittelpunkt. Das Fatale an MS: Friedrich Longin von der Landessaat Welche Therapien bei welchem Leiden sinnvoll sind Eine Psychotherapie kann bei seelischen Problemen helfen. Dies wurde jetzt in der weltweit renommierten klinisch-experimentellen Zeitschrift Journal of Experimental Medicine p Schwangerschaftsosteoporose Netzwerk Osteoporose e.

Alleine in Deutschland sind derzeit etwa acht Millionen Menschen an einer Osteoporose erkrankt. Neue Therapieoption gegen MS? Es gelang den Forschern erstmalig das komplette Genom eines historischen Kr Das ist das Ergebnis einer Studie von Prof. Die Symptomatik der verengten Halsvenen, genann Wie finde ich eine geeignete Einrichtung? Dadurch bleibt weniger Zeit, um Straftaten zu begehen.

Auf der Internetseite www. Wer also vergessen hat, Unterlagen beispielsweise zur Fahrtkostenerstattung oder Zuzahlungsbefreiung einzureichen, kann d Patienten und Vertreter von Patientenorganisationen hatt Hinzu kommen indirekte Kosten, beispielsweise wenn eine Erkrankung nicht ausreichend beh Wie kann ein Schlaganfall bei Risikopatienten verhindert werden? Mit welcher Therapie kommen Epilepsie-Patienten am besten im Arbeitsleben zurecht?

Was bringen die zahlreichen neuen Medikamente bei Multiple Sklerose wirklich? Erwachsenen Multiple-Sklerose Patienten kann das Mittel zu ei Das Traumfinale Deutschland gegen Kambodscha war spannend bis zur letzten Minute. Damit gewann das Team zum dritten Mal in Folge H4 Sprossen und Keimlinge Ein zentrales Ziel der Studie ist es, zu Das betrifft mich doch nicht!

Eine Forschergruppe des Sportwissenschaftlichen Instituts hat herausgefunden, dass MS-Erkrankte nach intensiver theoretischer und praktischer Ausbildung ihr sportliches Training eigenverantwortlich gestalt Ihre Ergebnisse haben sie in der Fachzeitschrift Nun haben australische Psychologen dies auch wissenschaftlich nachgewiesen -- bei Menschen mit MS.

In einer interessanten Untersuchung gingen australische Wissenschaftler School of Psycholog Juni hat Prof. Bei den meisten bildet sich diese Episode mit Hilfe von Psychotherapie und Medikamen Auf einer Party sind zahlreiche Stimmen aus unters Absender der Spam-E-Mails sind u.

In diesem kurzen Zeitraum konnte sich die Substanz einen festen Platz in der Behandlung der Volkskrankheit erobern. In Deutschland erhielten bereits etwa Insbesondere die Zunahme medikamentenresistenter Bakterien und Krankenhausinfektionen stellt hier eine zunehmende Herausforderung dar. Um diesem Problem zu begegnen, entwickelte ein Team um Gregor E. Morfill, Direktor am Max-Pla Der Effekt beruht auf der Eigenheit der Sehner Ein neues 3-D-Herpesinfektionsmodell bringt Hoffnung: Zu der Bilanz kam auch die Schirmhe Unter anderem im Test: Und sie macht doch Pickel Schokolade macht Pickel?

Denn Kuhmilch - so i Florian Then Bergh und Dr. Wenn ein neuer Account bei Facebook angelegt wird, fragt das soziale Netzwerk, ob das Adressbuch zum "Freunde-Finden" verwendet werden soll. Auf PC oder Smartp Mai steht unter dem Motto: Und keiner sieht es". Damit soll der Fokus auf Symptome dieser Krankheit gelenkt werden, die auf den ersten Blick nicht erkennbar Zugleich werden zahlreiche Projekt So auch bei MS. Zum Vergleich dienten gesunde, nach Alter, Geschlecht un Somit gibt die Gesetzliche Kra Das berichten englische Forscher in der Fachzeitschrift "Neurology".

Mit Stammzellen gegen Diabetes Stammstellenforschung ist ein umstrittenes Feld. Diese Neurogenese ist bei Menschen mit D Wie Depressionen sich auf die Gesundheit von Herz und Stoffwechsel auswirken, er Das Frankfurter Verbrauchermagazin hat Produkte ins Labor geschickt und Wirksamkeitsstudien analysiert. Ihre Erkenntnisse wurden jetzt in der aktuellen Ausg Ursache ist das diagnoseorien Dabei zeigte sich, dass die bislang als sehr selten geltende Hypophosphatasie in Europa wo Wer kennt das nicht?

Deshalb wollen wir es jedem Interessierten leicht machen, s So kann die Sterblichkeit an dieser Erkrankung deutlich gesenkt werden: Mehr als 95 Prozent der be Das hat das Bundessozialgericht entschieden. Innerhalb von Minuten wurden Zehntausende von MR Diese Arbeit, die in der aktuellen Ausgabe Im Vordergrund stehen finanzielle Verbindungen zur Industrie, aber auch die Karriereplanung oder die Anreize ein Internet- oder ambulante Einzeltherapie?

Der verspricht sich davon einen besseren Dialog mit der Politik und Gesundheitsbranche. Forschritte gibt es vo Mehr als zehn Jahre lang wurde das In Neue Forschungsergebnisse Rauchen und MS: Auch ein Thema, das zunehmend gut erforscht ist. Erneut haben Wissenschaftler eine aktuelle Meta-Analyse vorliegender Forschungsergebnisse gemacht. Dazu werden die Stammzellen in einer Operati Im Mittelpunkt steht dabei die Frage, wie sich aus einfa MS ist keine Erbkrankheit im strengen Sinne.

So erkranken von eineiigen Zwillingen nicht notwendigerweise beide a Zwischen drei bis zehn Prozent der Kinder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland sind von einer Aufmerksamkeits-Defizit- bzw. Stefan Wiese aus der Arbei Bevor die Kraftreserven aufgebraucht sind, ist es Zeit, auch an die eigene Gesundheit zu denken. Vorsorge ist das beste Mittel, um zu verhindern, das In einer immunologischen Studie von Sch Was Schokolade und Zucker mit unserem Gehirn anstellen, kann mit modernen Messverfahren abgebildet werden.

Die Wissenschaftler Markus Siegel, Gru Die Arbeit erscheint am heutigen Freitag Der aktuelle Dioxin-Skandal hat die Verbraucher verunsichert. Doch wie Dioxin-belastet sind die Lebensmittel Sektkorken, die aufs Auge knallen, explodierende Sprudelflaschen, unvorsichtiges Fucht Der Fokus lag dabei auch auf dem Risiko von Spontanaborten. In dieser Kohortenstudie sammelten Zimmerpflanzen beugen grippalen Infekten vor Zimmerpflanzen reinigen die Raumluft von Giftstoffen und Staub, steigern das Wohlbefinden und helfen sogar, grippale Infekte zu verhindern.

Die Publikation ist in der Ze Die Prognose " ist wieder mit vielen neuen Medikamenten zu rechnen, insbesondere gegen Krebs, Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen und Infektionen. Bei der Multiplen Sklerose MS handel Das geht aus dem aktuellen Gesundheitsmonitor der Bertelsmann Stiftung hervor. Sind verengte Venen Ursache von MS? Im Jahr wurden knapp 6 Millionen gesetzlich Versicherte gegen Asthma und andere Lungenerkrankungen Medikamente zum Einatmen verordnet.

Liegt hier ein neuer Therapieansatz? Was bei der Mu Weil sein Wirkungsprofil einmalig ist, In den letzten 10 Jahren hat eine Vielzahl von epidemiolog Die Lasten zur Decku Eine besonders schwere Form dieser Erkrankung ist die rheumatoide Arthritis. Innerhalb der letzten 12 Mo Das Forscherteam um Michael Kaplitt vom Wei Michael Weichenthal, beide Exzelle Januar soll der Regelsatz um 5 auf Euro steigen. Ziel ist die effektive Entwi Die Mediziner hatten insgesamt zehn Patienten mit der so genannten Magnetkrampfther Pro Abruf kostet das nur 1 Euro.

Preisvergleiche von Medikamenten mit identischer Zusammensetzung sind ab sofort kostenlos abrufbar. Wer vom Arzt ein Medikament verschrieben oder empfo Your Story" Leben mit MS: Ihre Geschichte eingereicht und mehr als Das hat eine neue Studie aus Kanada herausgefunden. Moreover, external factors can also be seen as path dependency elements; for example, the magnitude of accumulated foreign debt under state socialism Bohle, , p.

It should however be clear that these concepts alone can only partly explain the processes of institutional transfer. Several articles have been published in the meantime that deal explicitly with the transnational diffusion of political concepts and institutions. They provide important insights into the structural prerequisites for transfer.

Accordingly, political measures diffuse easier than political institutions, and the speed of transfer is accelerated by the existence of international networks and epistemic communities. These empirical works also raise the problem of proving transfer, because not just transfers alone but also endogenous processes can result in similar-looking political measures or institutions see overview by Stone, Conversely, studies on the diffusion of concepts in the social policy field, which have experienced cuts in many countries over the last decades, highlight far more frequently the power aspects of implementation strategies for these innovations e.

Neoinstitutional works highlight this latter aspect Kitschelt et al. For a theoretical definition of both structural and actor-oriented instances of institutional transfer, I find the discourse theory developed by Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe most helpful Scherrer, Their understanding of discourse is not limited — as most generally are — to spoken or written text, but is distinguished by an epistemological position. The substance of meaning is not determined by the essence of an object or practice, but rather by discursive articulation: Accordingly, Laclau and Mouffe reject the idea that societal reality could be reduced to an inevitable part of an immanent law.

Nevertheless, they do not rule out the existence of structures. Yet structures never achieve a completeness wherein all elements are defined, but rather are vulnerable to constant interruptions and shifts. Subjects, like structures, never attain a closed identity because this comes about only in relation to other identities.

What results is the reciprocal subversion of subject and structure. The subject is the product of a shift in a structure, that is the impossibility of a structure to constitute itself fully. The structure results conversely from the impossibility of a subject to continually regenerate everything that is discursive i. The discourse-analytical assumption of mutual subversion of structure and subject offers a plausible approach to the analysis of institutional transfer. On the one hand, it gives access to how theorists of path dependency, such as David Stark, grasp the significance of institutions for individual and collective action.

At the same time, this discourse-analytical assumption allows an actor-oriented approach. These subjects can recreate meanings in the imaginary realm i. Their existential conditions would first have to be undermined. The absence of a center does not rule out the existence of centers, of hierarchies among the structures. Centers of societal practices can namely exist only as long as a structure is not completely closed.

In the case of closure, each element of the structure would possess only a relational identity with all other elements Laclau, , p. The extent of this influence rests first on the type of relation they have with the other practices and second on how far they themselves are enshrined in society. Generally, the societal availability of practices is contingent on several factors, including, 1 how expansive they are and how long they have endured, 2 how self-evident they have become, 3 how negative the probable consequences of their change are estimated to be, 4 which sanctions will be imposed if attempts at change are made, 5 whether actors are ready to defend these practices if the previous mechanisms for maintaining them fall short, 6 what resources they can mobilize in comparison with actors urging change; and how they use these resources.

As applied to the question of institutional transfer, these considerations entail searching for a — temporarily — fixed institutions including their structural elements that either enable or restrict such a transfer, and b — to a limited extent — open situations where actors struggle for renewed closures and in so doing become involved in interpretational conflicts.

Second, one must analyze which institutions generate institutional legacies, which in turn are also discursively recognized. In both cases, one would need to check how much the competition or the capacity to persist is also discursively grasped and to what extent an attempt is made to modify the institutions that cause these structural effects.

The discursive strategies of institutional transfer do not however take place in a structure- and power-free realm. One must take into account, first, the power relations among the discourse participants and, second, the aforementioned structural conditions of concrete institutional transfer. In other words, former power positions influence the options for the discursive power of interpretation in relation to a foreign model. Research on modernization and democratization of nations Merkel, , pp. In the process of reaching understanding amid divergent interests, actors such as policy experts, who otherwise enjoy only limited powers, can play a larger role.

Moreover, it stands to reason that, if there is a discrepancy between promised and actual productivity of an institution, weaker actors will assume more power. Logically enough, the media will play a key role in disseminating proposals for institutional transfer, with their actors very likely pursuing their own interests in the process. The weaker country is usually more willing to learn from the stronger one than vice versa. These resources might include its power within international organizations, which might be based on geostrategic motives e.

Yet power alone is not enough. A highhanded use of power can breed resentment and resistance. Competition as Structure and Discourse Object A proposal for institutional transfer is more persuasive if it is portrayed as a necessary measure for surviving a threatening competitive situation. In contrast to this thesis, however, success of transfer seems to depend less on whether competition really exists and more on how much a crisis is seen as the outcome of a competitive situation.

If competition is not recognized as such, then it cannot be held up as a basis for institutional change. Naturally, an actual but unrecognized competition mechanism can still have an impact; for example, it can lead to military defeat, to bankruptcy, or to high unemployment. But whether the defeat is retrospectively associated with the competition mechanism is an open question.

Interpreting a crisis as the outcome of a competitive situation will seem more plausible if supported by everyday experience: At one extreme, by war; or in times of peaceful economic competition, by experiences in the consumer world and at the workplace. Later, when steel industrialists concluded that it was not possible to catch up with the new competition and made cuts in the investment budget accordingly, unions successfully advocated protectionist policies, using them to obtain wage increases that were out of proportion to productivity gains Scherrer, , pp.

The institutions of private ownership, trade, the GATT, and price-sensitive purchasing decisions pitted steel producers against each other in international competition. Although competition could not be fully offset in this manner i. Institutional Compatibility Foreign practices are more likely to be adopted if they are compatible with existent values and institutional arrangements. This is the most common argument in the literature for the dissemination of ideas and policies and is most akin to the path dependency argument.

Changing procedural knowledge is difficult and can only be achieved with the passage of time, because such knowledge is implicit. People learn rules without conscious knowledge of them, and these rules are stored as procedural memory. Procedural knowledge is also rooted in identities that are given by the existent categories defined by the societal division of labor Kogut, , p.

Finally, David Strang and John W. The more familiar the model institutions are, the less affected the power relations between the societal actors will be and hence the lower the resistance. If many of the existing institutions need to be changed, then the inadequately fulfilled interaction requirements with other institutions during the implementation process will increase the risk that the initial innovations will fall short of the anticipated efficiency gains or other advantages. This disappointment can cast doubt on the further implementation see above.

Institutional restraints on adopting foreign practices will be illustrated by an example from Germany. The introduction of American production methods was barred by the German industry cartel, which enabled small producers to stay in business Berghahn, , p. The adoption of Taylorist concepts, many of which were indigenous to Germany, was nevertheless impeded by a societal order with institutionalized skill identities the Meister, the Facharbeiter upheld by political actors Kogut, , p.

In , the boards of directors of several German firms supported decentralized wage bargaining in line with the American model. Apart from the strength of the unions, many large industrial employers were ambivalent about this demand. Institutional or mentality restraints, however, can be overcome with the passage of time. Either the institutional setting adapts to the new practices, or these new practices are adapted to the old institutions.

The younger generation embraced American methods more readily, first and foremost because they apparently worked see above. Even if foreign practices are adopted, the copy is not identical with the original. For example, when Taylorism was finally introduced in Germany, it did not lead to a deskilling or to the imposition of crude incentives to the extent seen elsewhere, because the belief in sustaining the role of the skilled laborer in the production process was retained Kogut, , p.

Besides the problem of adopting all supporting institutions of a foreign practice simultaneously, a principle obstacle is that a prototype is not a fixed template. There usually is ample space for disagreement about the central features of the model to be copied. For instance, many firms claim to have installed Japanese production methods. The thesis by which, under penalty of ruin, the most efficient practice has to be adopted stands both empirically and theoretically on thin ice.

Empirically, no clear trend toward convergence is discernible, price alone is not the decisive factor in competition and identical prices could conceal very different combinations of input factors or institutional settings , and many economic activities are not subject to direct competition. There is likewise no clear-cut empirical evidence for the path dependency thesis, which sees the legacy of existing institutions to be a restraining factor in the possibilities for institutional transfer.

In addition, the thesis can be difficult to operationalize. There are myriad contrasting ideas about the relevant time span and the major events that shape the respective path. To determine their concrete shape, I have chosen a discourse-analytical approach that, without having to deny the power of competition and institutional legacy, increases awareness of the political conflicts surrounding institutional transfer.

A good starting point for a prognosis, based on the deliberations above, would be the relative power relations between advocates and opponents of institutional transfer. These relations, defined by the availability of economic, political, and media resources, represent just one approach, however.

The proposal to copy a foreign model can achieve a much greater response if it is packaged as a solution to a problem deemed pressing by the majority of people. The work of persuasion can be facilitated by the following factors: Prevailing consciousness of strong competitive pressure; extensive compatibility of the envisaged policies and institutions with existent values and institutional structures; a powerful and interested model country or international organizations; and a model that lives up to the expectations of its proponents.

Among the Public Choice authors, Mancur Olson has dealt the most with competition between individual polities. This viewpoint implies however that the institutional transformation does not strictly orientate itself on the best model but can be influenced by other factors. Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy.

University of Michigan Press. The Americanization of West German Industry, — The Case of Large Privatization Policies. Institutionelles Lernen in der Weltumweltpolitik pp. Journal of Political Economy, 5 , Neue Rundschau, 1, Discussion Paper FS I. The Diversity and Future of Capitalisms: Turbulence in the World Economy. Power, Production, and World Order. Old Legacies, New Institutions: Comparative Perspectives on Democratic Transition pp. University of California Press. Political Economy of Modern Capitalism: Mapping Convergence and Diversity.

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Teams als universelles Konzept? Die Diffusion von Politikinnovationen: New Reflections on the Revolution of our Time. New Left Review, , Hegemonie und radikale Demokratie. Zwischen Institutionentransfer und Eigendynamik: The Transfer of Management Innovations from Japan. Die Transformation Ostdeutschlands in vergleichender Perspektive pp. Evolutionary and Radical Approaches to Economic Reform.

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Bundesversicherungsamt zur Reform des Morbi-RSA

Rezeption, Eigenentwicklung oder Innovation? The Machine that Changed the World: Deutschen Soziologentages in Frankfurt am Main pp. Regieren jenseits des Nationalstaates: Globalisierung und Denationalisierung als Chance. High growth rates, full employment, and low rates of inflation nourished the talk of the so-called Wirtschaftswunder and even dreams of never-ending prosperity Lutz, In the s things changed. With regard to growth and employment, a persistent gap opened up between Germany and other OECD economies, which was only temporarily obscured by a countercyclical i.

At this time, both home and abroad, confidence in the strength of the German Model began fading away. Once belief in the steering capacity of the state had been lost, even among Social Democrats, the public debate was characterized by a strong — and sometimes irrational — discourse about the supposed economic and societal dangers of rising public expenditure Herr, The demands of the latter included lower costs for enterprises in general and lower labor costs achieved by more flexibility and a reduction of social contributions in particular cf.

A climax and, looking back, maybe one of the most crucial events in this confrontation was the introduction of reduced weekly working hours in after a fierce labor dispute in the metalworking industry. Against heavy resistance from 33 S. From an institutional point of view, this event can be seen as one of the first and important cracks in the foundation of the German Model Beyer, , p. In the s, and after reunification, the debate about the strength or rather the weakness of the German economy changed once more — gradually but in an important way.

While the arguments of employers and many economists varied rather gradually, the change in the position of trade unions was striking. In accordance with the decentralization process in industrial relations, unions too more or less adopted the microeconomic view that improving competitiveness would be the crucial task for the future of the German economy. Therefore, Joachim Hirsch , p. Besides these moments of continuity, however, there is also a fundamental change visible. In order to assess the stability of the German Model and its potential to return to higher growth, these alterations of existing institutions and the discourses about their capabilities are important.

The identification of challenges, problems, and possible solutions, as well as the operation of institutions, is shaped by perceptions, theoretical assumptions, and the strategies of actors. In this chapter, the problem of slow growth and high unemployment is discussed from different perspectives.

At first, the most frequent arguments of the economic mainstream, that is inspired by neo-classical economics, are presented. In the subsequent sections, this argumentation is reviewed in several ways. On the one hand, supposed comparative disadvantages, in particular concerning labor market rigidities or wage differentials, are questioned theoretically and — comparing Germany and the United States — empirically.

On the other hand, when rising competition in the course of globalization is seen as the central challenge for which the German economy is supposed to be poorly equipped, than this weakness should be reflected in international competitive disadvantages; for example, concerning exports, unit labor costs, or the innovation system. However, the microeconomic view turns out to be unsatisfactory. It does not, as regards the peculiarities of the German Model, provide a convincing explanation of why former strength has turned into current weakness cf.

Therefore, it is helpful to look for other explanations. Based on a Post- Keynesian interpretation of the concept of mercantilism, it is possible to build a macroeconomic framework that provides more insights into three phenomena central to understanding the German economy: However, the success of these reforms is questionable. It consisted of different approaches e. Central to these concepts is the conviction that apart from a few exceptions markets are selfregulating and macroeconomic steering policies useless, if not harmful.

The existence of temporary imbalances, for example, unemployment, therefore would be the result of a hindrance of market forces caused by external regulations, wrong incentives, or dysfunctional policies cf. At first sight, these concepts seem to be rather theoretical, but their influence on the analysis of real economies, reform proposals, and economic policies is evident.

If we were to compare different national models of capitalism from this point of view, German or Rhenish capitalism must look like a pathological case. Because of its high reputation, the work of the OECD, especially its Economic Survey of Germany , is an excellent reference for the following discussion. Not entirely clear is the relevance attributed to private consumption.

At first glance, it seems that low consumer demand — in comparison with other OECD countries — is attached an independent macroeconomic role in terms of explaining low growth OECD, , pp. From low employment, a merely small increase in disposable personal income, and a decline in consumer confidence caused by deteriorated labor market prospects ibid. So the central problem is seen in a disturbance of the labor market as a result of several institutional and political interferences: Labor market imbalances are thus at the core of a system of cumulative or mutually reinforcing problems.

On the one side, low domestic demand increased the dependency on foreign demand and exports; on the other side, rising labor costs also caused a decrease in international competitiveness. Finally, and not directly related to growth but rather to matters of allocative and dynamic efficiency, there are some sectoral and institutional deficiencies regarding the regulation of product and financial markets, the federal system, public administration, and the educational system. The transfer of the western German welfare state and extensive financial transfers raised social expenditures overall and the social security contributions of employers thereby increasing labor costs per hour.

Furthermore, the survey takes a critical look at the extent and allocative effects of subsidies, state aid, and tax relief. Besides the generally acknowledged risks of Mitnahmeeffekte free riders and administrative inefficiencies, it criticizes especially negative allocative effects on investments, for example, crowding-out effects, and the inherent bias toward capital-intensive investments OECD, , p. Altvater, ; Priewe et al.

According to this diagnosis, the recommendations of the survey put special emphasis on structural reforms of the labor market OECD, , pp. However, their arguments do not go unchallenged. On the one hand, macro economists question the theoretical foundation of this microeconomic diagnosis. On the other hand, institutional economists doubt whether the OECD policy prescriptions will lead to growth. Apart from a few exceptions heterodox economists, left-wing politicians, unionists , it seems to be an unquestionable fact that structural incrustations and a lack of consistent reforms especially regarding the labor market and the welfare state hamper necessary adjustments to globalization and therefore a recovery of the German economy.

One of the most widespread arguments in this context is the assertion that German wages or labor costs are characterized by downward rigidity and — as also often assumed — are therefore on average too high. This lack of downward flexibility is held responsible for deficient demand for especially lowqualified, low-wage labor and an enduring exclusion of less productive labor from employment.

The link between the labor market and the welfare state in this framework is primarily seen in the fact that reservation wages are too high because of too generous unemployment benefits: Of course, the question is not whether minimum wages are high enough but whether welfare payments are low enough cf. To be sure, the point is not the existence of flexibility-restricting labor market regulations; of course they do exist. Rather, the question is whether these regulations can be seen as the main reason for macroeconomic stagnation, and — more importantly — are reforms necessary and would they be sufficient?

Besides the comprehensible endeavors of employers — particularly of small and medium-sized enterprises — to improve their competitive position, the focus on labor markets is usually based on two perceptions: A second line of argumentation is based on international comparisons with more liberal market economies and thereby a selective attribution of macroeconomic success to less regulated labor markets. The most preferred example in this context has been the United States, especially during the New Economy.

Both argumentations have been questioned on several grounds. I will start here with a discussion of the theoretical models and the pivotal position given to the labor market. In the subsequent sections, I will discuss statements about the deficient flexibility and adaptability of the German — compared to the U. In neo-classical economics, the labor market is no different from other markets. On the basis of calculations to maximize profits companies or utility households , economic actors adjust the quantities of labor they demand or the supply to a given price wage. Vice versa, the price mechanism makes sure an equalization of supply and demand i.

In this model, external shocks or changes e. The crucial point is that this adjustment process only works when there are no regulations or restrictions to hinder it; for example, minimum wages or collective wage contracts. The functional logic is therefore very simple: In the case of existing unemployment, wages have to fall until voluntarily reduced supply meets increased demand.

Any existing obstacles to this adjustment should be removed. Yet as simple as this model looks, there are many assumptions and restrictions necessary for its operation — above all regarding the macroeconomic level. Making assumptions and simplifications can be an useful procedure to build comprehensible theoretic models for analyzing complex issues.

It becomes problematic when those assumptions that are crucial for the operation of the model conflict with or even contradict reality cf. Herr, a; Priewe, In view of the existence of more than one capital good, different technologies and branches, and alternative — but nevertheless methodologically consistent — behavior, the generally applied curves of labor supply and demand represent little more than special cases: Usually the labor supply curve is based on the general assumption that the supply of labor increases when wages rise and decreases when wages fall.

But that must not always be the case. For example, if individuals put a higher value on additional leisure time than on additional income perhaps because they already earn enough , they could reduce their labor supply when wages rise. On the other hand, when wages — for example, for low-qualified jobs — are already low, a further fall could induce a higher labor supply, because affected workers may have fixed expenses or want to maintain their standard of living or, as is often the case in developing countries, wages fall below the minimum subsistence level and they have no other choice.

In these cases, there is either no unique equilibrium or the realized wage depends on labor market regulations e. Additionally, firms usually apply specific technologies. Therefore, in the short run, the quantities of capital and labor used in the production process are only to a certain extent mutually exchangeable or combinable.

Consequently, the real effects of changing wages are not clear. There is no guarantee whatsoever that lower wages or a growing wage spread would lead to significantly higher employment or less unemployment Herr, a. Second, the relevance ascribed to the labor market and to labor market regulations for macroeconomic development and growth can only be comprehended by making a few heroic abstractions from reality and by neglecting macroeconomic factors. Even though neo-classical theories make macroeconomic statements, they do not contain a theoretically relevant macroeconomic component.

Macroeconomic processes are a mere aggregation of microeconomic decisions and actions, without having an independent relevance. A typical example of this problem is the misleading analogy between the aggregate labor market and individual contracting. While a choice between income wage and employment opportunities may be comprehensible for individuals, on an aggregate level the same logic is flawed. On an aggregate level, wages have an influence on the general price level, the generated income, and resulting effective demand.

A singular equivalent barter is a completed action, but macroeconomic quantities are moments of circular processes. Unfortunately, the assumption of an analogy is widespread even among economists — e. SVR, ; — and unions and responsible for the pertinacious belief that a dispensation with real wage increases below productivity increases would be an adequate way to increase employment cf.

surviving globalization?

Third, neo-classical or Walrasian approaches assume a barter economy and only work when historical time is replaced by logical time and real uncertainty by calculable risks. If, in contrast, existing uncertainty and historical time AFTER THE MIRACLE 41 are accepted, then money becomes an important factor, too, because now economic processes go sequentially and decisions are based on uncertain expectations about the future, that is money is no longer a simple lubricant for the execution of a system of entirely known barters.

Decisions to spend or to save money, about credits and investments have their own consequences for future economic developments. Consequently, Post- Keynesian economics assumes a hierarchy of markets, in which capital or asset markets take the lead and the labor market follows. Moreover, in this context, regulations that limit the downward flexibility of wages are seen as stability anchors and, particularly in a recession, could protect the economy from deflationary processes. This brief discussion of some fundamental shortcomings shows that the microeconomic perspective with its emphasis on the labor market is at the least built on fragile theoretical grounds.

If we were to strip it of its assumptions, not only would many statements appear impossible, because we simply do not know what happens, but the theory would have to be reformulated as well. Even if this framework were not rejected, it would be very problematic to derive concrete policy advice from it. Long before the advent of the New Economy, proponents of the Euro- and particular German sclerosis thesis have used the United States as a contrasting showcase. Beginning in the mids, the United States enjoyed impressive above-average increases in employment and growth, seeming to justify liberal and conservative endeavors to implement supply-side oriented reforms.

Above all, higher average and structural spread wage flexibility and lower employment protection regulations were to make the American economy more dynamic and adaptable to the requirements of globalization e. By contrast, high long-term unemployment in Germany was taken as evidence of incrustation. Rising productivity, far from being a sign of international competitiveness, was first of all seen as the result of exclusion and loss of lessqualified, less-productive work. Until the deindustrialization of eastern Germany in the wake of unification, unemployment in the United States was on average not below German unemployment.

On the one hand, eligibility periods and criteria for unemployment insurance and welfare payments have significant effects on registered unemployment. On the other hand, their impact on the extent of unemployment irrespective of bureaucratic accounting procedures is a matter of dispute. Low levels of benefits and bureaucratic hassles often discourage the unemployed from registering. Forced to take any job available, the unemployed end up in insecure jobs that do not guarantee continuous employment.

They may find themselves quickly out of a job again Peck, Additionally, lower levels of welfare benefits may foster criminal activities the U. The weak evidence for the incrustation thesis suggests other reasons for growing employment in the United States. Additionally, expansive macroeconomic effects have resulted alternately from public expenditures e.

Thus, while the German economy is often typified as being export-driven, the U. The massive reduction of private savings and increasing private indebtedness were also crucial for the success of public consolidation — without having depressing effects on growth — during the Clinton administration.

The German Finance Minister, Hans Eichel, has had bad luck in that he has tried to consolidate public finance in times of increasing private savings, a tight monetary policy, and reluctant investments. This Sisyphean task is even worse than it looks: As a consequence of decreasing tax revenues caused by stagnation and the tax reform Eichel bears partial responsibility for, public indebtedness has actually risen cf. Perhaps the most important reasons are strong population growth, continued immigration, and significantly higher employment of women. Last but not least, expansionary trends of the U.

On the contrary, as a cost factor of production, labor costs are the main determinant of prices. Without having a proper institutional approach apart from a general suspicion of every institutional regulation, the microeconomic view cannot assess the impact of individual institutions and overlooks complementarities and existing functional equivalents, for example, regarding employment flexibility. Therefore, the residual explanation of German unemployment being a hysteresis phenomenon and the product of a too-limited reach of reforms so far remains weak. For example, at the end of the s and in response to the unification boom, employment in western Germany rose very quickly and substantially after an increase in demand and even helped to integrate the long-term unemployed Schettkat, , p.

This argument is discussed in the next section. Whereas the previous discussion was related to a closed economy, now specific aspects of an open economy are examined. Recently, two areas of competitive disadvantages in the German economy have been identified. This argumentation was hardly related to the peculiarities of the German production model and almost exclusively emphasized high wages or labor costs in Germany.

But in the course of the New Economy boom, a second focus emerged. New or endogenous growth theories helped to identify a growing gap between Germany and other leading industrial countries in the fields of high technology, innovations, and corresponding structural change. This theme was also discussed internationally by rather heterodox researchers from disciplines ranging from Economic Geography to Institutional Sociology.

In the comparison of different innovation systems, it is also a central issue of the varieties of capitalism approach, where it is explicitly analyzed as an integral part of national models e. The elusive fact that the high value of the U. Thus, there indeed existed a problem of competitiveness, at least partly rooted in the institutional configuration — and yet in existing complementarities — of the German production model. However, this diagnosis was not typical for the dominating Standortdebatte and at best supports single moments of the latter. Moreover, complaints about high labor costs and incrusted institutional structures not only arose before the crises of the production model became evident, but also continued after the phase of reorganization — or more precisely, hybridization — and re-establishing competitiveness in the s.

Last but not least, and also in contrast to the incrustation thesis, the benchmark was not a liberal market economy, but the socially highly regulated Japanese production model, and factory reorganization as AFTER THE MIRACLE 45 well as the adoption of new principles demonstrated the adaptability of the German Model ibid. The most popular criterion for demonstrating a competitive disadvantage of the German economy remains wage or unit labor costs.

Despite continued usage by employers e. As already mentioned, comparatively high wages have been a functional feature of the German production model and cannot be assessed adequately without paying attention to productivity and other elements of the model, such as qualifications or product strategy. Comparisons of unit labor costs are problematic because of methodical deficiencies and the influence of selected data e.

Generally, comparing unit labor costs is only meaningful related to their dynamics. A first glance at the data may be surprising. Over the years indexed to , a growing gap — or competitive advantage — in favor of Germany has opened up. Measured in international currency, that is taking exchange rate changes into account, German unit labor costs rose somewhat faster in the s. They then dropped below those of other countries, rising above them only twice during the s and the s and Flassbeck, ; Deutscher Bundestag, , p. In the past few years, between and , German unit labor costs rose significantly more slowly compared to most of the main trading partners, apart from Japan.

With regard to unit labor costs, there is no visible decline whatsoever in competitiveness. Growing competitive advantages and trade surpluses against the accession countries in eastern central Europe have further strengthened this impression. Not even the strong appreciation of the euro has brought an end to the extraordinary export success so far. If unit labor costs exerted competitive pressure, then it was a temporary result of the asynchronous cyclical developments6 of costs and — mostly — a result of changes in exchange rates Flassbeck, Apart from a very few years, West Germany constantly realized trade and current account surpluses until unification Herr, Then the current account — of entire Germany — became negative, whereas the trade balance remained positive despite the strong import suction of eastern Germany.

This export success is even more impressive when one looks at the structure of the current account. The major negative part of the latter again results regularly from traveling i. Notwithstanding this impressive strength of the German economy, two problems in the structure of trade have recently been expressed: The continued weakness of eastern Germany: Because of the deficient industrial structure of eastern Germany, export success is the exclusive business of western Germany.

Confronted with the massive competition of western producers and the high value of the Deutsche Mark DM after unification, eastern German enterprises aligned themselves with local markets, where competition was less intense. A retarding structural change in the German economy: The latter phenomenon is at least partly rooted in the sectoral structure and the innovation system of Germany.

In the s, Frieder Naschold, then researcher at the Social Science Research Center Berlin, was one of the first to identify the insidious signals of a fading evolutionary capacity — albeit starting from a high level Naschold, , p. Naschold explained this assessment of the sectoral structure by the high share of employment in manufacturing and a comparatively small share of services. Additionally, he found that the pattern of specialization of the German economy showed an underdevelopment within the field of high-tech products e.

This pattern of specialization was also reflected in the innovative capacities e. Later studies basically confirmed this assessment and ascertained a progressing concentration of innovative activities on the System Automobil, whereas the declining international advantages of the German innovation system e. If there really is such a thing as a decline in competitiveness, it is reflected more in innovative capacities and in the structural dynamics of the German economy and less in too-high labor costs.

These difficulties might grow further since they are at least partly rooted in the institutional model. Additionally, demographic trends indicate a coming shortage of qualifications. But what are the implications of this assessment for an explanation of the current weakness of the German economy and for the future capacities of the German Model? Secondly, despite the indicated deficiencies, most studies attest Germany to have maintained a highly competitive innovation system.

Germany holds a leading role in several key technologies, for example, environmental, energy and traffic technologies Vogel, As mentioned above, the latter fact may alter in the future. The question remains whether a fundamental change in the German innovation system would be advisable or even necessary. This question again leads back to the discussion about different models of capitalism and the peculiarities of the German Model. In the institutional literature and especially in the varieties of capitalism approach, innovation systems are conceptualized broadly.

As an integral part of the whole national model, the 48 STEFAN BECK innovation system not only consists of the educational and training system and the organization of private and public research and development, but also is closely linked with or embedded in other institutional forms and modes of coordination, such as finance, industrial relations, or corporate governance cf. In general, liberal market economies are considered to be more dynamic and flexible in the short run and therefore better equipped to motivate, develop, and utilize high-tech innovations at the forefront of technological development.

The reasons therefore are seen, for example, in less regulated labor relations, the relevance of more flexible capital markets, incentives in the educational system and in employment relations, and less regulated product markets cf. By contrast, the German innovation system is characterized mainly by reliable adaptability in the long run in conjunction with a high ability to integrate established technologies in new high-quality — but rather medium-tech — products. The concept of institutional complementarities see the next section provides some good reasons to question not only the feasibility but also the necessity of an institutional switch to an Anglo-American type of innovation system — even if the recent dynamic of radical innovations continues.

As the lasting international success of traditionally strong industries indicates, the German innovation system still works quite well and internal complementarities are by and large intact. While there is no doubt that some elements or trends could be improved, for example, concerning the creation of qualifications or the links between different spheres of research, there seems to be more of a temporary? Boyer, ; Beck, a. This is a question about the advantages and disadvantages associated with the different options.

In contrast to an imitation of the Anglo-American model, the careful and path-dependent alteration or rearrangement of existing institutions combined with the importation of lacking capacities could preserve existing comparative advantages instead of gambling with them. As the example of biotechnology development in Germany showed recently, this not only is a successful strategy but also increases the capacities dealing with radical innovations cf.

In relation to the situation of costs, trade, and the innovative capacities, a presumed loss of competitiveness cannot explain the pertinacity and the extent of growth deficits and unemployment. In sum, the microeconomic interpretation and in particular the incrustation thesis are not satisfying. As concerns the historical fit, the relevance of several causative factors, and the assessment of institutional contexts, the microeconomic view provides a rather hypothetical patchwork of partial arguments instead of an explanatory framework.

However, at least as a justification for a far-reaching deconstruction of the German Model, a convincing assessment would have to be asked for, otherwise the causal links between existing problems and suggested reforms are questionable. Institutions in this concept are to a certain degree mutually reinforcing increasing returns and have to be compatible with each other regarding their modes of coordination.

On the other hand, it is supposed that altering singular institutions could be problematic or even counterproductive, because this could reduce not only possible synergies but also the functioning of these and other institutions cf. This approach is useful for assessing in what ways the recommended reforms might prove dysfunctional to the overall design of the German Model. From this point of view, the suggestions of the OECD survey are not marginal.

On the contrary, being theoretically consistent, the several measures utilize the aspect of complementarity, too. Although those models are often at first the result of theoretical assumptions, they are also related to existing national capitalisms and try to draw much of their legitimacy from empirical comparisons and national examples.

Nowadays, there is widespread belief that liberal market economies or the Anglo-Saxon type of capitalism is better equipped for and more compatible with the requirements of globalization than non-liberal, also called coordinated, market economies and among them Rhenish capitalism cf.

Under the concept of complementarity, this differentiation is not merely of academic relevance, because then reforms could be hazardous, in particular when they would alter the mode of institutional coordination. The question is therefore not only about the comparative advantages of different institutional forms but also about the chance of success of an institutional alteration. Even if specific regulations e. According to Hall and Soskice , p.

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Outcomes are the result of supply and demand decisions according to price signals and are often based on rather short-term, marginal calculations. Although elements of the latter are not completely absent in the former, a consistent application of liberal market-style concepts, as presented above, would imply a significant alteration of the German economy and would possibly overcome the German Model.

While change could generally follow two different directions, that is the deepening or strengthening of existing complementarities and comparative institutional advantages according to the prevailing mode of coordination versus the weakening of this mode of coordination in favor of a different one, recent trends as well as the majority of current reform proposals are in favor of the latter alternative.

Since neither the operational stability nor the real economic and social outcome of those reforms is certain or even predictable, it should be questioned whether there are indeed no alternative explanations and strategies as popular rhetoric often affirms. In contrast to the microeconomic view, the focus here lies on macroeconomic, macro institutional, and political relations. The consequence was a continuous undervaluation of the Deutsche Mark DM or, more precisely, a real undervaluation in terms of purchasing power parities despite nominal appreciations Crouch, In spite of some supportive external factors, particularly expanding world markets, the export boom in the wake of the Korean War, and international tolerance for an undervalued DM, trade surpluses and low inflation have not been fortunate coincidences but rather the results of economic policies and the high social value attached to them.

Low inflation, that is slow increases in the general price level, as an important precondition for high competitiveness and export success was, in Germany, the result of a — nearly textbook — cooperation of various institutional, political, and socioeconomic factors. With continuing success i. The Bundesbank not only pursued the goal of low inflation consistently but also facilitated the realization of current account surpluses and reacted rigorously to imminent deficits. However, the Bundesbank did not promote exports by the classic mercantilist strategy of devaluation.

On the contrary, this was categorically rejected. Instead, it pursued a course of monetary stabilization and restrictive policies regarding interest rates and monetary aggregates. The capital inflows which usually have an expansionary effect on monetary aggregates, the economy, and eventually on inflation caused by the current account surplus and the increased currency premium of the DM were sterilized as far as necessary and possible.

The second stabilizing factor is based on the system of industrial relations and the German production model. In the case of Germany, comparatively moderate nominal wage increases and high productivity resulted in low increases of unit labor costs and hence low rates of inflation and high international competitiveness — even in times of a nominal appreciation of the DM, that is a real undervaluation cf.

Finally, the third pillar of German mercantilism concerns fiscal policy. Fiscal policy has never been particularly expansive except during the early s.