Principles of Tidal Sedimentology

Another feature of tide- of the river mouth, similar to the portion observed for dominated deltas is that this zonation is irregular along the Fly and Ganges-Brahmaputra dispersal systems. In the coast with multiple, wide distributary channels and the case of these East Asian examples, though, sedi- islands occurring within a funnel-shaped embayment ments are advected distances of up to — km Fig.

Prior to these recent the shoreline. These tidally-dominated environments are characteristic of the intertidal to shallow subtidal zone, particularly at the rivermouth and along adjacent 7. Saito forming within or along the active distributaries of where sedimentation rates are high and bedding is well the rivermouth estuary and comprising muddy, sandy, preserved Reineck and Singh Bidirectional to heterolithic sediments Fig.

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For rivers discharging large sedi- and mud-drapes or double mud-drapes, indicate tidally ment loads, such tidal ridges accrete vertically and influenced deposition. These sand-mud layers are basi- horizontally, and ultimately merge to form shallow, cally controlled by cycles of flood-slack-ebb-slack intertidal flats.

These flats eventually become emer- tidal currents, where slack periods produce the draping gent and vegetated to form new delta-plain environ- muds and flood and ebb currents form planar to ripple- ments. In this way the growth of tidal ridges marks the laminated sand layers.

However, neap-spring tidal incipient stage of delta-plain progradation and is a cycles are not often recorded in the laminations defining process in tide-dominated deltas Allison Dalrymple and Makino , as much of the record et al. From influenced distributaries comprise laminated to thinly the subtidal to intertidal zones, these sediment facies bedded sand-mud alternations with tidal signatures, typically show an upward-fining and thinning succes- although these are not always well preserved or statis- sion.

The thicker and coarser layers in the lower inter- tically definable Dalrymple et al. Due to the tidal zone result from more mud settling from the water saltwater intrusion into distributary and tidal channels, column at slack tide and stronger currents during flood marine to brackish fauna e. Foraminifera transported by flood tides are typically fining-upward and thinning-upward succes- recognized even further upstream, presumably trans- sion e.

In tropical to subtropical areas woody man- affect onshore transport distances for marine-derived groves dominate these environments, with tree roots, particles. Rhythmic climbing- platform and likely represent the incipient phase of ripple cross-lamination and neap-spring cycles may channel-mouth bar formation.

These Ganges-Brahmaputra deltas these deposits are inter- distributary-channel deposits contain well-sorted fine bedded or interlaminated sand and mud that are formed silt to clay, often derived from near-bed fluid muds under the strong influence of tides, especially the e. Fly River; Ichaso and Dalrymple These neap—spring cycle Jaeger and Nittrouer ; Michels sediments with high accumulation rate and large sedi- et al.

The daily tidal exchange is not typically ment supply can provide indirect evidence of river del- recorded, though, either not being formed or not pre- tas in the rock record, although they do not necessarily served. The sand layers within the delta-front platform distinguish them from tide-dominated estuaries unless develop through erosion and bedload transport during other indicators, such as a progradational stacking of spring tides, whereas muddy layers are produced under facies, can also be recognized.

In Muddy tidal flats are one of the most important case of the Gulf of Papua shelf of the Fly and Kikori components of tide-dominated deltas. The typical sed- deltas, the delta-front platform topset shows massive iment facies of this environment comprises sand-mud mud with laminated sandy mud, interbedded mud and alternations with flaser, lenticular and wavy lamina- sand, and bioturbated sandy mud Dalrymple et al.

Subtidal shelf facies association B. Tidal channel facies D. These facies associations the marine-dominated delta-front slope or prodelta are repre- comprise juxtaposed deltaic environments see Fig. Such episodic wave-scoured erosion surfaces on the delta-front changes locally form a series of cheniers on the prograd- platform. Where wave influence is high at the shoreline, sedi- ment facies in the intertidal zone change significantly with the development of sandy beaches and longshore 7.

The Mekong and Red river deltas of Vietnam both have beach ridges with aeolian dunes and fore- Seaward of the muddy subaerial delta and inner delta- shore with longshore bars in an intertidal zone in parts front platform, sediments typically coarsen again on of the delta Thompson ; Ta et al. Portions of these del- e. This situation is common for groves and tidal channels.

Saito outer platform to high wave energy and tidal-current local variability in lithology, structure, and stratal acceleration Figs. Structures on this relationships. In deltaic settings where accretion rates outer portion of the delta-front platform include fine to are relatively high, facies associations record delta pro- medium-scale bedding with wave ripples, hummocky gradation and lobe development that typically occurs at and trough cross-stratification and frequent sharp- timescales of 10 1—10 3 years. For tide-dominated deltas based erosional contacts formed by storm-wave scour. Overall tidal signa- Allison et al.

As described the strong cross-shelf tidal currents, because of gener- from numerous delta-plain systems, the facies association ally lower sedimentation rates and frequent bed resus- comprises an 8—10 m thick, fining upward succession pension by waves. Individual lies and channels, incised distributary channels, and bedding units often comprise graded upward fining the subtidal shelf Fig.

The tidal-bar facies asso- et al. Ripples are also ciation is variably described as a fining-up or coars- found on the seabed of the delta front of the Changjiang ening-up succession of cross-stratified sand with Chen and Yang However, clear tidal signatures bidirectional flow indicators and inclined planes that are not always present in the delta-front slope sedi- is very similar to, if not the same as, the portion of ments of tide-dominated deltas, because tidal currents the delta-plain facies association Fig.

The are not usually well-developed this far offshore. The shell beds result pri- up example being more proximal to the rivermouth marily from storms, which may also transport coarser- and receiving abundant sediment to make a rapid grained sediments to the prodelta. In contrast to the transition from subtidal to vegetated intertidal prevalent tide-dominated facies formed in the delta- setting, whereas the coarsening-up succession may plain distributaries and the adjacent intertidal to sub- be a more wave-tide dominated downdrift littoral tidal delta-front platform, the delta-front slope to deposit.

The tidal gullies and distributary channels are prodelta environments are mostly influenced by waves, regularly described as fining-up, current-rippled to ocean currents, and storms. However, the most characteristic features of these facies associations is the regular occurrence 7. On aver- characterize the various subenvironments of tide- age, though, tidal channels are relatively laterally dominated deltas Fig. Fagherazzi and so the muddy delta- ; Heap et al.

A facies association is a group plain deposits that cap tidal-channel sands are of sedimentary facies that are typically found together commonly preserved in the upper stratigraphy of the and define a particular environment, but also allow for subaerial delta clinothem. Each model includes where beach ridges are well developed at the shoreface the lower coarsening-up subaqueous clinothem overlain by the Modified after Kuehl et al.

The Mekong a, respectively Offshore facies associations are less frequently offshore and may not be recognized in the rock record. Saito as various types of forced regression deposits in a With only modest variation this general succession of tidally influenced setting Van Wagoner et al. Such a mud-incised succession of et al. Such similarity progradating tidal channel deposits has also been suggests that this stratigraphic succession may be a described from the Miocene-age record of the Ganges- useful tool in distinguishing tide-dominated deltas in Brahmaputra delta Fig.

Local variation in the tide-dominated delta succession has been recognized in the Mekong system, which has become increasingly 7.

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In the Mahakam delta, Deltas are defined as discrete shoreline deposits formed alongshore heterogeneity in stratigraphic successions where rivers supply sediment more rapidly than can be arises from the greater fluvial influence relative to tidal redistributed by basinal processes Elliott ; thus reworking Gastaldo et al. As defined, deltas 7. Therefore deltaic The rate of delta progradation can strongly influence successions will overall shallow upward, ideally includ- the delta facies succession.

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As the subaerial delta pro- ing facies associations from prodelta, delta-front slope, grades basinward, the tidal distributary channels can delta-front platform, and delta-plain environments, in incise up to 20 m into the delta-front platform deposits, ascending order Fig. The Ganges- deltaic units, the idealized stratigraphic succession can Brahmaputra and Mahakam deltas are examples of be subdivided into two major intervals Fig. The such progradational and aggradational deltas that dis- lower portion shows an upward-coarsening facies suc- play a largely continuous and conformable Holocene cession from the prodelta to delta-front slope and outer succession from prodelta to delta-plain facies platform deposits that is marked at its top by sharp- Goodbred et al.

If distribu- based wave and current scours. This lower interval is tary channels are stable relative to delta progradation, overlain by an upward-fining succession of prograding a delta succession will form as described above. The upper interval is fast relative to delta progradation, then much of the most typically represented by the delta-plain facies delta-front facies will be replaced by distributary- association see Sect.

Within the overall deltaic succession, the coarsest and most well-sorted deposits typically occur in the boundary zone between the 7. However, with further sea-level 7.

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It might river-wave-tide ternary delta classification and have therefore be inferred that tide-dominated deltas are been studied in earnest only since the s. Several more generally highstand features, as adequate tidal comprehensive research programs during the s energy is less well developed during lowstands due to and s developed a sound knowledgebase on the narrow shelf widths.

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Indeed meso- to macrotidal con- hydrodynamics, sediment transport and marine pro- ditions in the modern are associated exclusively with cesses, and strata formation in tide-dominated deltaic broad shelves or large drowned valleys and embay- settings. More recent research on modern deltas, par- ments. Regional morphology of the continental margin ticularly studies involving the drilling of cores and e.

Sea-level rise following a lowstand leads to the Today most modern tide-dominated deltas are build- transgression and marine inundation of incised valleys ing seaward through modestly prograding deltaplains formed during the previous fall of sea level. Riverine and more rapidly prograding muddy subaqueous cli- sediments are effectively trapped in these valleys to nothems.



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The sedimentary facies within these settings form fluvial and coastal plains, resulting in sediment are typically, perhaps characteristically, heterolithic starvation on the adjacent shelf and the formation of a and often mud-dominated e. Open Coast Tidal Flats Siliclastic Back-Barrier Tidal Flats Tidal Channels on Tidal Flats and Marshes Shallow-Marine Tidal Deposits Deep-Water Tidal Sedimentology Precambrian Tidal Facies Hypertidal Facies from the Pennsylvanian Period: Holocene Tidal Flats Tidal Sands of the Bahamas Archipelago Ancient Carbonate Tidalites Index.

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