Atheism and Theism (Tulane Studies in Philosophy)

The few female metaphors used for God in the Bible, for example, were overshadowed by the dominance of male images—Lord of Hosts, Father, King—which reinforced patriarchal attitudes. Hartshorne considered himself a feminist. Sometime in the late s or early s, he was alerted to the problem of sexism in language and so he began using inclusive language as one can see in Omnipotence and Other Theological Mistakes and elsewhere. Auxier and Davies , He argued that the relationship between mother and fetus is decidedly more intimate than the relation between father and fetus.

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Thus, for some purposes, the analogy of a pregnant mother for the relation between God and the creatures is preferable to any male counterpart. Of course, the pregnancy analogy, like all symbolic language for deity, has a restricted use. Analogies like World-Soul, person-cell, or pregnancy, are at best distant approximations for the relationship of God to the world.

As metaphors they are literally false, but they are aids in understanding what Hartshorne has in mind when he says that God includes the world. If God is the greatest conceivable reality, then God must include all that is valuable in the universe. Otherwise, there would be a reality greater than God, namely, the universe-plus-God.

Charles Hartshorne: Theistic and Anti-Theistic Arguments

Could God include what is valuable in the universe without including the universe? Hartshorne does not think so. We have previously used the examples of Mozart and Beethoven as introducing new values into the universe, but other examples are legion. It must therefore be included within God if God is to be conceived as the reality than which none is greater. All value is in God, and the creatures merely share or participate in that value. By way of analogy, Clarke says that a mathematician may impart her knowledge to her students.

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Once the students learn what the teacher has to teach there is not more knowledge in the class, there is only more of those sharing in the knowledge. A music teacher may provide her class with the basics of theory and composition, but the students can create new musical pieces, each with a value of its own. In this example, there are not simply more sharers of being , but more creators of value. Classical theism had the unhappy consequence of divesting the creatures of any value that is their own, except for what is on loan from God. The sum-total value or perfection of existence is the same whether or not the creatures exist.

For this reason, Hartshorne considered his panentheism to give a better account than classical theism of what it means to serve God. If the value in a creature is wholly borrowed from God, then the individual can offer God nothing that did not already belong to God by natural endowment. For Hartshorne, on the other hand, the creatures may be imperfect, but they are not mere conduits for values that God already possesses. Brightman in their correspondence was whether it is possible for God to include individuals that hold erroneous beliefs without also holding those beliefs.

Or again, can God include creatures who are anxious about their death without also being anxious about death? Hartshorne replies that the logic of parts and wholes is such that they do not necessarily share properties—for example, a sand dune is not the size of a grain of sand even though it is made of grains of sand. Each part of the universe, Hartshorne holds, is a dynamic singular with an activity of its own that is not simply the activity of the universe as a whole this is another way of expressing indeterminism. By parity of reasoning, these centers of individual activity, or the organisms of which they are parts, can have properties such as false beliefs, evil deeds, or anxiety about death that are not shared by the whole.

A person can remember formerly holding a false belief or doing something wrong; God, by analogous extension, can prehend—that is, make part of the divine life—the errors and sins of the creatures without thereby being in error or sinning.

It is important to add that while Hartshorne denies that God is the author of creaturely lack of wisdom and virtue, God nevertheless suffers their negative effects. In Creativity in American Philosophy , Hartshorne maintains that God feels how others feel without feeling as they feel , Two advantages of panentheism, as Hartshorne argues for it, are that it provides a ready argument in support of monotheism and it addresses the empiricist challenge of how to identify the referent of the word God.

If God is an all-inclusive reality, then there can be only one God because there can be only one all-inclusive reality.

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The argument that there could not be two all-inclusive deities is this: As for the empiricist challenge, the conditions for the identification of the panentheistic God are not the same as would be required to identify a localized being. Individuals within the cosmos occupy a tiny portion of the universe for a vanishingly brief period.

Their influence is felt locally but not universally. God, on the other hand, is affected by all and affects all. As Hartshorne says, God is the one individual with strictly universal functions , 31; , From this, he infers that God is the one individual identifiable, or picked out, by concepts alone. Other individuals have properties that might have been had by others for example, Obama was the Democratic candidate for President in , but he need not have been and the properties they actually have might have been different for example, Hillary Clinton was born in Chicago, but she could have been born elsewhere.

The formal properties of God as all inclusive are unique to God: One might search the earth for Obama or Clinton, but it would be profoundly misguided to search the earth, or the cosmos, for God. The amount of energy that Hartshorne devoted to questions surrounding the nature and existence of God might lead one to classify him as a theologian. There can be no question that he was first and foremost—as he himself emphasized—a philosopher. Various ideas about deity that he defended, most notably his critique of divine immutability and impassibility, have been widely influential although few would be willing to call themselves Hartshorneans.

A case in point is the late William P. One may also mention Hartshorne as a pioneer who contributed to the recent widespread interest among philosophers of religion in panentheism. This tendency may be less prominent since the resurgence of interest in philosophy of religion in the closing decades of the twentieth century.

Of course, Hartshorne was active throughout the century, vigorously defending the rationality of dipolar theism in the heyday of the Vienna Circle. At a time when religious discourse was widely regarded as nonsensical, Hartshorne met and challenged the positivists on their own terms. It is fair to say that Hartshorne was influenced by his Chicago colleague Rudolf Carnap in his insistence on high standards of logical rigor. His defense of divine relativity may well be the single most important factor in dissolving the near consensus that once prevailed that an entirely unchanging and eternal deity should be considered normative for theology.

He considered the deity of the classical tradition as at once too active and too passive. It is too static in the sense that it cannot change or be affected by the triumphs and tragedies of the creatures. In short, it is a deity that acts but is never acted upon and can therefore never interact. This is captured in the Aristotelian formula that was borrowed and reinterpreted by medieval thinkers to denote the God of the Abrahamic traditions: Hartshorne amended this formula to distill the essence of dipolar or neoclassical theism: God is the most and best moved mover.

A New World View: Essays by Charles Hartshorne Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Square Library, Donald Wayne Viney Email: Existence and Actuality To say that God exhibits both sides of a metaphysical contrast would be a logical contradiction unless there was a way of showing that the polar extremes apply to God in different respects.

Conclusion The amount of energy that Hartshorne devoted to questions surrounding the nature and existence of God might lead one to classify him as a theologian. Suggestions for Further Reading a. Books in order of appearance Hartshorne, Charles. Willett, Clark and Company. A Social Conception of God. Reality as Social Process: Studies in Metaphysics and Religion.

Hartshorne, Charles and William L. Philosophers Speak of God. University of Chicago Press. Republished in by Humanity Books. A Natural Theology for Our Time. Creative Synthesis and Philosophic Method. Seven Centuries of Metaphysics of Religion. Creativity in American Philosophy.

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Viney and Jincheol O. Hartshorne and Brightman on God, Process, and Persons: Process Studies , Special Focus Section: Conversations with Charles Hartshorne. Hahn, Lewis Edwin, editor. Kane, Robert and Stephen H. Hartshorne, Process Philosophy and Theology. Philosophical and Theological Responses. Selected Articles Hartshorne, Charles. A Reply [to John Wild]. Clayton Feaver and William Horosz. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.: Richardson and Donald R. A Reply [to Houston Craighead]. Garden City, New York: Inada and Nolan P. Metaphysics as Applied Mathematics.

Secondary Sources Blanchette, Oliva.

Edited by David M. Studies in Philosophy and the History of Philosophy, Volume The Catholic University of America Press: Traditional Understandings and Contemporary Challenges. Re-Imagining the Divine in the World.

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Language and Natural Theology. New Essays in the Philosophy of Religions. Edited by Eugene Thomas Long. Edited by Santiago Sia. Harvard Dissertations in Religion, number Analytic Theism, Hartshorne, and the Concept of God. The Aesthetics of Charles Hartshorne. A More Dangerous Enemy? Ateism, Agnosticism, and Apothatic Theism. Piotr Sikora - - Polish Journal of Philosophy 4 1: Atheism and the Basis of Morality.

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