The epidemics of the middle ages (1859)

Amazon Giveaway allows you to run promotional giveaways in order to create buzz, reward your audience, and attract new followers and customers. Learn more about Amazon Giveaway. The Epidemics of the Middle Ages: From the German of J. Babington [ ]. Set up a giveaway. There's a problem loading this menu right now. Learn more about Amazon Prime. Get fast, free shipping with Amazon Prime.

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The study also found that there were two previously unknown but related clades genetic branches of the Y. These clades which are thought to be extinct were found to be ancestral to modern isolates of the modern Y. Surveys of plague pit remains in France and England indicate the first variant entered Europe through the port of Marseille around November and spread through France over the next two years, eventually reaching England in the spring of , where it spread through the country in three epidemics.

Surveys of plague pit remains from the Dutch town of Bergen op Zoom showed the Y. The results of the Haensch study have since been confirmed and amended. Based on genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England, Schuenemann et al.

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DNA taken from 25 skeletons from the 14th century found in London have shown the plague is a strain of Y. The plague theory was first significantly challenged by the work of British bacteriologist J. Shrewsbury in , who noted that the reported rates of mortality in rural areas during the 14th-century pandemic were inconsistent with the modern bubonic plague, leading him to conclude that contemporary accounts were exaggerations. It is recognised that an epidemiological account of the plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period.

In addition to arguing that the rat population was insufficient to account for a bubonic plague pandemic, sceptics of the bubonic plague theory point out that the symptoms of the Black Death are not unique and arguably in some accounts may differ from bubonic plague ; that transference via fleas in goods was likely to be of marginal significance; and that the DNA results may be flawed and might not have been repeated elsewhere or were not replicable at all , despite extensive samples from other mass graves.

McCormick has suggested that earlier archaeologists were simply not interested in the "laborious" processes needed to discover rat remains. A variety of alternatives to Y. Twigg suggested that the cause was a form of anthrax , and Norman Cantor thought it may have been a combination of anthrax and other pandemics. Scott and Duncan have argued that the pandemic was a form of infectious disease that they characterise as hemorrhagic plague similar to Ebola.

Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of a large number of rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the plague spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y. However, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance.

In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicemic a type of "blood poisoning" and pneumonic an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body forms of the plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms.

There are no exact figures for the death toll ; the rate varied widely by locality. In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Germany and England Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60 per cent of Europe's population. It is generally assumed that the size of Europe's population at the time was around 80 million.

This implies that around 50 million people died in the Black Death. The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death rate of about a third. In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from ,—, inhabitants in down to 50, in Monks and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for victims of the Black Death. Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", [64] lepers, [64] [65] and Romani , thinking that they were to blame for the crisis.

Lepers , and other individuals with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis , were singled out and exterminated throughout Europe. Because 14th-century healers were at a loss to explain the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plague's emergence. The mechanism of infection and transmission of diseases was little understood in the 14th century; many people believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins.

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This belief led to the idea that the cure to the disease was to win God's forgiveness. There were many attacks against Jewish communities. By , 60 major and smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed. During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a warm welcome from King Casimir the Great. The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries.

In the first half of the 17th century, a plague claimed some 1. Russia and allies [94] killed about , in Sweden, [95] and , in Prussia. The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world. Algiers lost 30,—50, inhabitants to it in —, and again in —, , , and — Between and , thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople , and an additional thirty-one between and The third plague pandemic — started in China in the midth century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.

This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis.

Catalog Record: The epidemics of the middle ages | Hathi Trust Digital Library

The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of — , followed by another outbreak in — Modern treatment methods include insecticides , the use of antibiotics , and a plague vaccine. The plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in The phrase "black death" mors nigra was used in by Simon de Covino or Couvin, a Belgian astronomer, who wrote the poem "On the Judgment of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni , which attributes the plague to a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn.

De signis et sinthomatibus egritudinum by French physician Gilles de Corbeil. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Black Death disambiguation.

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The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with Europe and the Middle East and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page , or create a new article , as appropriate. October Learn how and when to remove this template message.

The seventh year after it began, it came to England and first began in the towns and ports joining on the seacoasts, in Dorsetshire, where, as in other counties, it made the country quite void of inhabitants so that there were almost none left alive. The Oriental rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis engorged with blood. This species of flea is the primary vector for the transmission of Yersinia pestis , the organism responsible for bubonic plague in most plague epidemics. Both male and female fleas feed on blood and can transmit the infection.

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Oriental rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis infected with the Yersinia pestis bacterium which appears as a dark mass in the gut. The foregut proventriculus of this flea is blocked by a Y. Theories of the Black Death. Consequences of the Black Death.

Black Death Jewish persecutions. Retrieved 3 November De-coding the Black Death". Retrieved 12 February Retrieved 8 November A pest in the land: University of New Mexico Press. Retrieved 12 November The Least You Need to Know". Retrieved 9 August Archived from the original on 25 July Retrieved 25 January Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, Volume 1: Beginnings to the 15th Century. The New York Times. Retrieved 1 November Alien regimes and border states, —, p.

Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Archived from the original on 25 June Spatiotemporal Dynamics Suggestive of an Alternate Causation". Retrieved 24 February Retrieved 23 May Cambridge, Massachusetts, , p. Archived from the original on 16 May Retrieved 24 April Totaro Suffering in Paradise: Duquesne University Press, , p. Targeted enrichment of ancient pathogens yielding the pPCP1 plasmid of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death. PNAS ; published ahead of print 29 August , doi: Retrieved 29 March Retrieved 20 August Toward an Ecological History".

Journal of Interdisciplinary History Submitted manuscript. Medieval and Modern Bubonic Plague: Making the Black Death Global". The Black Death in London.