Lera globale: linguaggi, paradigmi, culture politiche (Sociologia) (Italian Edition)

Nel la rivista Studi Kantiani ha celebrato i suoi primi 25 anni di percorso. Secondo il suo parere, quale sarebbe il bilancio di questo progetto, riconosciuto ormai internazionalmente come luogo di incontro tra gli studiosi di Kant a livello internazionale? Mantenere in vita una rivista a stampa in quegli anni non era facile e il circuito di internet non esisteva.

Basti questo a far comprendere come il progetto fosse tanto coraggioso quanto lungimirante. Nei numeri in preparazione e introduciamo per la prima volta anche fascicoli parzialmente monografici, basati su call for papers: Con la prospettiva che concedono i quattro anni trascorsi dalla celebrazione del XI. Questo aspetto — per il quale si era tentato di coinvolgere non solo studiosi di Kant — mi sembra almeno parzialmente riuscito nel lavoro testimoniato dagli Atti: Anche in Asia sono riscontrabili importanti contributi agli studi kantiani. Kant and Asian Philosophy W.

Per un altro canto, il gruppo di ricerca Kant in Turkey , coordinato da Lucas Thorpe, svolge un importante ruolo per lo sviluppo dello studio di Kant in quel paese. A suo avviso, come influisce questo ampliamento dei. Assistiamo a una vera a propria globalizzazione dei Kantian Studies?

Questa domanda si ricollega a quanto dicevamo a proposito del Kant-Kongress del Non sono parole disperse in qualche scritto marginale, ma che stanno al centro della Critica della ragion pura. Questo non significa che ogni iniziativa di disseminazione e approfondimento del lavoro filosofico su e intorno a Kant non sia utile e significativa. Se si guardano i dati sul numero di pubblicazioni, sul numero di pubblicazioni per ricercatore, sul loro numero in rapporto alle risorse impiegate, sulle citazioni dati che se hanno senso lo hanno per grandi aggregazioni.

Quali obiettivi ritiene che periodici simili dovrebbero prefiggersi? Sono dieci, e per chi pensa che una rivista sia solo un contenitore sarebbero troppe. Tutte mantengono un rapporto stretto con la Kant-Gesellschaft che presiede attualmente il prof. Cosa ne pensa sulla proposta di intensificare i rapporti tra questi spazi di ricerca, ispirata dai principi del diritto cosmopolitico kantiano?

Al contempo, si potrebbe allargare, appunto,. Whilst the idea of. The scientific ideal which history had to aim at was constituted by three established models: The core and the instrument of this enterprise is the teleology. It is in the middle of the challenge because it is also the science of the living organisms. Pourtant, une telle connaissance ne saurait orienter notre pratique. Comme le rappelle Cassirer,. Si le devin fait et organise lui-. Pour que ce soit le cas il faudrait que les hommes soient capables de comprendre et de suivre la loi morale. Pacaud, Paris, PUF , p.

Philonenko, Paris, Vrin , p. Certes, il ne faut. Dans la Lettre aux amis de Lessing de Mendelssohn un Groenlandais, se promenant sur la banquise avec un missionnaire,. Il faut se garder par cette double exclusion de toute confusion entre. On parle alors de. Opus postumum , p. Dans son essai sur le concept de race humaine Kant oppose la.

Schriften zur Geschichtsphilosophie , Stuttgart, Reclam. The main of this article is to discuss the idea of moral enhancement in Kant. We will show that moral enhancement is related do idea of acting from duty and as individuals all that we can do is to act morally and enhance ourselves morally, contributing for the moral enhancement of the human species. To achieve the moral enhancement of the human species, however, it is necessary not only to work for our enhancement, but also to work for the happiness of others. Human destiny ,then, is to morally improve ourselves as individuals, contributing this way to change the character of the species, becoming not only a species capable of morality but de facto moral, achieving the highest good supremum , while hoping for the happiness of the virtuous, i.

Afirma Kant explicitamente AA07 Este dever se funda sobre a lei moral. Afirma Kant AA 09 Tornar-se melhor, educar-se, e se formos maus, produzir em si a moralidade: O soberano bem em Kant, pode ter dois sentidos, significando supremo supremum ou perfeito. O soberano bem pode significar tanto supremo supremum quanto completo consummatum. Aqui, no entanto, esbarramos nos nossos limites. Interpretation and Commentary, Routledge, New York. Francisco Cock Fontanella, Unimep, Piracicaba.

Hong-Kong Baptist University, China. Given his emphasis on deontological ethics, Kant is rarely regarded as a friend of prudence. What typically goes unnoticed is that in explaining the legitimate indeed, indispensable role of historical faiths in the moral development of the human race, Kant appeals explicitly to their prudential status.

The wise person adopts some form of historical faith, because to abandon any and all prudential appeals to a faith-based vehicle for morality would render the goal of living a good life virtually impossible for embodied beings to achieve. Because so much of his ethical writing focuses on constructing rational arguments that appeal to the pure form of this law i. For typical examples of such a caricature, see Beiner , , and Davie , How To Avoid Milking a Ram: Once we recognize that Kant poses this well- known, humorous metaphor in a context where he is admonishing us to be prudent, it takes the form of a riddle.

He claims to have employed. Critique of Judgment Indianapolis: Hackett, ; Critique of Pure Reason Indianapolis: Hackett, ; Critique of Practical Reason Indianapolis: Quotations from Religion will be based on my revised translation, as found in Palmquist However, in discussing how to respond to the limits placed by the Critique on our knowledge of the three metaphysical ideas of reason i.

As is well known, Kant thinks the proper way out of this impasse given that theoretical reason necessarily fails in its attempt to demonstrate that God exists is to ground our certainty in moral reason.

Número completo | Revista | Con-Textos Kantianos. International Journal of Philosophy

Consequently, reason can here supply none but pragmatic laws of free conduct that is aimed at attaining the purposes commended to us by the senses, and hence can supply no laws that are pure, i. Prudence cannot play any constitutive role in moral decision-making because, as Kant here reminds us, its laws are never pure and a priori, as genuine moral laws must be. Nevertheless, this passage clarifies that we are allowed to consider prudential reasons, especially when it comes to harmonizing our various efforts to reach the highest good. Turning to the Critique of Practical Reason , we find that Kant is far more cautious about prudence in moral contexts.

Following a rule of prudence is reprehensible if doing so causes a person to disobey the moral law 5: He thus reminds us 5: To clarify his theory of prudence, Kant repeatedly compares it with the contrasting theories defended by two ancient Greek philosophical schools, the Epicureans and the Stoics 5: In the shorter published Introduction 5: To be prudent is to consider how. Among the several recent studies of Kantian prudence, I know of none that. But Taylor, like Nelson before him see note 2 and Flikschuh after him, focuses almost entirely on the political implications of Kantian prudence; though he does make a few passing references to Religion , he never cites the passages where Kant actually mentions prudence.

That the once common caricature of Kant the prude i. Of these three influential Kant-scholars, the one whose work offers the most thorough account of Kantian prudence is Wood ; see especially pp. As Wood emphasizes n: The proper task of religion is to empower us to overcome this universal propensity to evil by influencing how we motivate ourselves to act. While empowering human beings to be virtuous is the proper moral goalof all true religion, Kant repeatedly argues that this is not the sum-total of what makes religion. Kant explicitly rejects the view that our bodies are to be blamed for radical evil; in Religion he clearly and repeatedly insists that evil is a defect of the will.

With this in mind, he distinguishes between what is essentially religious and therefore universally true, by virtue of its grounding in moral reason and the complement of some historical religious tradition that must inevitable accompany it though the latter by its very nature is contingent and ever-changing. Interpreters of Religion have typically assumed. And for an interpretation. The nuanced, essentially perspectival character of my position on Kantian religion is ignored by McGaughey , who constructs a straw man by imputing an absurd set of interpretive positions to me in support of his allegation that I have misrepresented Kant.

Fortunately, the straw man that McGaughey sets up bears virtually no resemblance to the interpretation of Kantian religion that I actually defend in Palmquist or anywhere else. What I shall demonstrate in the. He also alludes to the notion on numerous other occasions by employing a variety of metaphors that vividly portray the relationship between the moral core of religion and its prudent means of application.

A growing ear of corn needs the husk in order to mature into an edible vegetable, even though we typically throw away the husk as if it were useless, once the kernels are. For example, in the Preface to his book, Conflict of the Faculties , p. In fact, it is only natural religion that I appraise. Kant clearly does point out many examples of how Christian doctrines, symbols, and rituals may be interpreted as non-moral, and hence as lacking in prudence; his claim in this Conflict passage is that he did not thereby intend to be assessing their historical truth, as legitimate features of the tradition for appraising that is the job of the biblical theologian, not of the philosopher.

Rather, he was merely assessing their prudential value , as vehicles for moral faith. McGaughey completely ignores this crucial nuance in my reading of Kant, assuming that I take Kant to be referring always and only to historical religion per se , rather than to historical faith as empowered by moral religion see notes 1, 7, and The first occurs as a side-comment in a footnote added in the second edition: Here prudence is presented ambivalently, as a good tool that is easily used in the service of evil: But such disingenuousness and the accompanying guilt is not caused by our need to be prudent; rather, prudence arises as a response to the threefold evil frailty, disingenuousness, and perversity that is presented to us by the human situation.

Without portraying it as. If we were not already, as a part of our first nature, prudential creatures [cf. But prudence…is not a brutish capacity. It is rather a central part of any education that aims at moral maturity. A quick reading of this second reference to prudence might give the impression that Kant is depicting prudence as contributing to radical evil. But on closer inspection, this is not what he says.

Rather, his argument assumes that radical evil makes us untrustworthy in our interpersonal relationships; an implied premise is that if we were perfectly good i. Indeed, Kant elsewhere defends this maxim in detail, warning friends not to share personal details about themselves that could be used against them, should the friendship someday cease Kant , Kant begins the Second Piece with some reflections on where the ancient Greek Stoics went wrong, and his next reference to prudence appears in this context 6: Rather, one must only tame them, so that they do not themselves wear one another out but instead can be brought to consonance in a whole called happiness.

The reason…that accomplishes this is called prudence. Far from disparaging the body, Kant shows himself here to be deeply aware of the significance of human embodiment. Clearly, Kant is here implying that the Epicurean is no better off than the Stoic: The wise person i. Here again, therefore, Kant is not downplaying the role of prudential considerations in religion, as traditional interpreters such as McGaughey assume, but is raising it to the level of a factor that determines whether or not a given question is even worth asking. And if called, is such a state guaranteed to be permanent?

For a discussion of this and the other two difficulties, see Palmquist In his misconstrual of my interpretation of Kantian religion see notes 1 and 7, above , McGaughey portrays the argument of Palmquist as if I read Religion as a defense of Christianity as such , and as promoting a form of the doctrine of divine grace that is exclusively and necessarily Christian. What I actually read Kant as arguing, by contrast, is that pure moral religion leaves a space for divine grace, telling us nothing about whether or not such grace actually occurs, but requiring any historical faith that affirms a doctrine of grace whether it be Christian or otherwise to interpret it in a particular way i.

Kant gives the passage a moral interpretation by applying the same distinction to the whole human race: Note, however, that he is also implicitly assuming that childlike faith has a proper role to play in the historical development of the human race, just as it does for human individuals. A few pages later 6: Kant assigns the same function to all the myths, rituals, and symbols that arise within historical religious traditions. In the first of the four main references to prudence in the Fourth Piece toward the. Kant explicitly calls attention to this nuance of his theory in a footnote added in the second edition to a first edition footnote.

Having pointed out that all historical faith must be treated as if it can cease , he adds 6: The person who acts with calculated kindness. Jesus, by contrast, portrayed genuinely godly behavior i. Prudence, therefore, is not a bad thing, for it can lead a perverse person to do things that are at least legally good; its shortcoming is simply that it is not the best option, for it allows our motives to remain impure if treated as an end in itself as Kant thought Judaism does. In other words, the teachings and practices of particular historical religious traditions may be not only acceptable, but wise, provided their adherents do not claim too much for them.

Kant thus goes on to exemplify how such a religious teaching might be interpreted in a way that transforms the prudence of rationally- grounded historical faith into the foolishness of an irrational demand for knowledge: One of the other two references in the Fourth Piece has already been mentioned see note As such, even here Kant is not discrediting genuine prudence; rather, he is implicitly affirming its value, if understood with proper i.

First, bare reason provides us with an ideal picture of what being religious entails, and of why people should take advantage of this inward source of moral empowerment. Here Kant confirms his position on both prudence in general and historical religion in particular as an example of prudence: Although Kant may not have intended such an application, the metaphorical scenario of one person milking a male animal while a co-worker holds a sieve underneath can aptly elucidate the defects he saw in both sides of the ancient debate between the Stoics and Epicureans over the question: In other words, both of these classical positions lack prudence, but in different ways.

Beiner, Ronald , Political Judgment Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cambridge University Press , pp. Reprinted from Internationales Jahrbuch des Deutschen Idealismus: Glaube und Vernunft , ed. American Journal of Education Mary Gregor and Robert Anchor, in ed. Wood, Practical Philosophy Cambridge: A Response to Stephen. University Press of America. The transcendental horizon of Right in Kant. Kant, Doctrine du droit, Conclusion. Le droit ne serait-il pas de ce monde? Kant has found the pattern of his critical philosophy in the jurisdictional process.

In the Rightslehre , he uses his critical method and, to answer to the question Quid juris? Le point de vue. Cependant, Kant est assez avare de confidences sur son propre cursus intellectuel en ce domaine. Thomasius , Heineccius ou Achenwall est lucide et sans concessions. Johann-Gottlieb Heineccius disait couloir atteindre la certitude dans la jurisprudence en. Notamment, voir note 1 - Reflexionen , AA Hommel en Allemagne, et par celle de J. Tel est le reproche virulent que le Suisse Jean-Pierre de Crouzas faisait dans ses Observations. Aux antipodes de la. Nous sommes en ce point loin du.

Thomasius, Fundamenta juris naturae et gentium , Nettelbladt, Systema elementaris jurisprudentiae naturalis, Achenwall, Prolegomena jurisnaturalis et jus naturae , Comme telle, elle indique le. Le principe fondateur du droit. Que connote le concept de droit public? Il connote au contraire, chez un peuple, la connexion. Doctrine du droit, Remarques explicatives, Conclusion , p. Elle permet de discerner la signification ultime de tous les concepts du droit: Doctrine du droit , Conclusion, p.

Telles en sont les limites. Habermas insistent sur la dimension. Normatividade e valor moral:. Kant, EaD, AA One of the most obscure problems in universalists ethics, in general, and in Kantian ethics, in particular, consists in a justification of a objectively valid principle from the connection between the question of the epistemology and the moral motivation. From this, our purpose in this paper is to try to clarify how the feeling of respect connects figures as practical reason, moral value and autonomy, both from a historical perspective as hermeneutics of Kantian texts.

Basic Books, and Sen, A. Oxford University Press, Normatividade e valor moral: Herausgegeben von Wilhelm Weischedel. Editora da Unesp, Doravante utilizarei as siglas usuais para citar as obras de Kant: Ou seja, se sustentamos que o cumprimento do. Ver, por exemplo, as seguintes passagens: Ou seja, afinal de contas: Respeito, valor e pluralismo moral.

A partir disso, surgem duas perguntas, quais sejam: Philosophy Documentation Center, O primeiro significa o interesse. NEPFil Online, p. Journal of Philosophical Research: State, Anarchy and Utopia, New York: Development as Freedom, Oxford: The Sublime, Ugliness and Contemporary Art: The aim of this paper is twofold. Second, to apply my interpretation of the sublime and ugliness to contemporary art, and to resolve certain issues that have been raised in accounting for the possibility of artistic sublimity.

I argue that an experience of a genuine artistic sublimity is an uncommon occurrence. It is without a doubt characteristic for contemporary art scene that it can no longer be described as beautiful. Prima facie , this is not surprising considering how Kant explains the sublime, namely, as an experience of displeasure caused by the perceptual and imaginative incomprehensibility of the object, yet which we overcome by turning to the faculty of reason and its ideas such as ideas of freedom, morality, humanity etc.

Such an explanation of the sublime presumably fits well with the distinctive character of contemporary art, namely, being one of initial displeasure due to the discomforting perceptual features of the art work, yet also one of indirect pleasure derived from the value of ideas communicated by an art work. Those who argue that no sublimity in art can be encountered emphasize the perceptual criteria of the sublime, namely, that sublime can be occasioned only by objects that are overwhelming in size and power, producing thereby a feeling of phenomenal insignificance in us.

Since art works do not have such properties - they have defined limits and we do not find them threatening in any way, they do not have the capacity to produce the sublime Guyer , p. On the other hand, those who argue for the possibility of artistic sublimity interpret the sublime primarily as a mental activity, which does not necessarily require the presence of external objects i. Since ideas of reason can be expressed through an art work as suggested by.

Kant in his theory of art and aesthetic ideas , thus art works can elicit sublime Crowther. References to Immanuel Kant are given in the text to the volume and page number of the standard German. Kants gesammelte Schriften KGS. References to the Critique of Pure Reason Kritik der reinenVernunft are to the standard A and B pagination of the first and second editions. References are also given, after a comma, to the English translation of Critique of the Power of Judgment Kritik der Urteilskraft , ed.

Cambridge University Press, Patrick Frierson and Paul Guyer Cambridge: Considering that many examples of art works that have been described as sublime have also been judged by some as ugly or even disgusting, it is reasonable to ask the question as to how we can distinguish between the sublime and the ugly. In the case of the sublime this struggle is caused by the perception of objects of great size and powers that occasion the idea of limitlessness in us, such as shapeless mountain masses, massive glaciers, dark and raging sea, erupting volcanos, devastating hurricanes, etc.

This failure of the imagination produces the feeling of displeasure. But also experience of ugliness involves an element of frustration in grasping rich yet, chaotic and disintegrated structure of the object. Consider for example certain kind of animals that we usually judge as ugly, such as the monstrous looking and repulsive angler fish, with its exceptionally large mouth, long, sharp teeth and a shiny lure coming out of its head.

Or, for example, the utterly disturbing appearance of an animal called naked mole rat, with its large front teeth, sealed lips behind the teeth and pink, wrinkled, almost completely hairless skin. We judge such animals ugly because we find arrangement of their features discomforting and offensive to our perception, as if composed from incongruent. The displeasure at seeing such animals is accompanied with the feeling of incorrectness due to a combination of features that ought not to be combined in such a way.

The perceptual features of an ugly object are too obtrusive and chaotic which makes it difficult for our cognitive abilities to process and to find a resolution for it. But what is distinctive for the sublime, in comparison to ugliness, is that such contrapurposiveness reveals a subjective purposive relationship between imagination and reason, which results in the feeling of pleasure.

Unfortunately, Kant does not offer an answer to this question. There are two main objections to the idea that pure judgments of ugliness are possible. But free harmony produces pleasure. But this means that that the universal state of mind of judgments of taste can only be the state of mind that produces pleasure. Consequently, judgments of taste are judgments of the beautiful alone.

The second objection was made by Guyer , p. This indeed is the view of Herman Parret , p. According to his position both sublime and ugliness are aesthetic responses to formless objects i. Furthermore, it follows from his account that sublimity appears to consist of a temporal sequence of two separate feelings, displeasure of ugliness and pleasure of reason, while Kant presented the feeling of the sublime as a rather single and complex feeling, identified with the feeling of respect.

Even though Kant does not offer a clear distinction between ugliness and sublimity, his analysis of the notion of the sublime in comparison to beauty nevertheless indicates that he considered sublimity to be a theoretically and phenomenologically different aesthetic concept than ugliness. This is the thesis that I will argue for in the rest of this paper. The possibility of a state mind of sheer disharmony, required for judgments of ugliness, is therefore epistemologically precluded. In the Critique of the Power of Judgment Kant puts forward a view that a beautiful object exhibits subjective purposiveness.

In short, an object is subjectively purposive if it occasions in us the state of mind of free harmony between imagination and understanding, the two faculties of the mind that are responsible for our ordinary ability to cognize object. While the imagination synthesizes the sensible manifold, the understanding on the other hand, unifies the manifold under the concept of the object. Kant explains this procedure of bringing sensible manifold to concepts i.

Both ordinary cognition and perception of a beautiful object satisfy the need of the power of judgment to attain the harmony between cognitive powers, the difference being that in the latter case no concept is applied to the sensible manifold i. On the other hand, Kant also distinguishes a state of mind of free disharmony. For example, he writes:. We come across to the same idea in his Anthropology , where he states:.

When cognitive powers are in a disharmony i. In other words, the object fails to agree with the need of the power of judgment to find harmony in the world. The dissatisfaction of this need produces the feeling of displeasure. Even though Kant does not explicitly say so, there is reason to assume that such a disharmonious state of mind is one that grounds judgments of ugliness.

After all, when he defines common sense as the subjective principle of taste and as a universally communicable aesthetic feeling, the feeling is not merely that of pleasure, but also that of displeasure: While in the case of beauty, mutual correspondence of cognitive powers prolong the process of their play, and accordingly, it prolongs aesthetic attention when we are delighted by an object, we want to remain in this state of mind , in the case of ugliness, the mutual hindrance or frustration between the cognitive powers obstructs their free play, thereby causing us to withdraw attention or to turn away from an ugly object.

We do not like to look seeing a picture of a naked mole rat makes me cover my eyes or hear discomforting sounds makes me cover my ears displeasing objects: But, according to Kant also sublime objects exhibit subjective contrapurposiveness 5: This is so because of the distinctive character of sublime objects, namely being one of exhibiting certain kind of greatness, either in size or in power. When the object is overwhelming in size, then the experience is called mathematically sublime. For example, the enormous structure of the pyramids in Egypt or the immense Himalayan Mountain massif are typical mathematically sublime objects since they are too vast and difficult for us to perceive them all at once.

But when the object is overwhelming in physical power, thereby occasioning in us the feeling of danger, then the experience is called dynamically sublime. Erupting volcanos, devastating hurricanes, extreme ocean storms are typical dynamically sublime objects because their physical power is too great for us to resist. One can notice that what both types of sublime objects have in common is the ability to endanger, in one way or another, the phenomenal side of our being. Objects overwhelming in size endanger our sensible cognition the object is too vast for our imagination to comprehend it and objects overwhelming in physical power threaten our physical existence.

In both case the perceptual and imaginative failure evokes in us the idea of limitlessness of the object the limitlessness of size in the mathematical sublime and limitlessness of the destructive and devastating power of nature in the dynamical sublime. This idea of limitlessness of the object is evoked in us due to the limited capacity of our imagination.

The power of imagination performs two kinds of acts: While apprehension can go on infinitely, the comprehension or synthesis of reproduction, on the other hand, is limited. In other words, the sheer size or power of the object, say of the impressive Himalayan mountains, prevents the imagination from successfully reproducing or keeping in mind the succession of apprehended sense impressions we cannot comprehend in one intuition all the parts and details of the vast mountain and therefore imagination fails to present the sensible manifold as a coherent and unified whole.

Kant writes, that perceiving an object as formless or limitless refers to an aesthetic estimation of the size or power of the object, rather than to a logical or conceptual estimation. In other words, the Himalayan Mountains appear limitless merely in a direct perception, as its size strikes our eyes, but not in a logical estimation of its size, since we can always measure it by choosing an appropriate unit. The same can be said for objects that are typical examples of formlessness such as the starry sky. Even though it is perceptually impossible to comprehend the size of the starry sky, a logical calculation of its.

I take it that acts of apprehension and comprehension are identical to acts of the synthesis of apprehension. This identification has also been suggested by Kirk Pillow , p. Similar is the case of the dynamically sublime objects. We can always measure the power of natural objects, say, the magnitude of an earthquake on the Richter scale, or the strength of the hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane scale. Thus nothing, as Kant concludes: In a logical estimation of the size or the power of the object the imagination and understanding stand in a harmonious relation. The imagination successfully synthesizes the sensible manifold as determined by the numerical concepts of the understanding.

However, in aesthetic estimation of the size or power of the object i. Nonetheless, there is still a demand for the imagination to synthesize the sensible manifold and present it as a unified whole. This demand is given to the imagination by the faculty of reason:. Thus, the failure of the imagination to synthesize the sensible manifold in one intuition is a failure of satisfying the faculty of reason. It is the disharmony between imagination and reason that produces the displeasure felt in the sublime. On the other hand, the fact that imagination fails to satisfy the task given to it by reason i.

Kant identifies the concurring experience of displeasure and pleasure in the sublime with the feeling of respect: The sublime is a feeling of inadequacy of our physical and sensible nature, yet at the same time a recognition of the value of reason and our ability to think beyond the sensibly given.

The sight of an erupting volcano arouses in us the feeling of terror and fear due to our inability to control the physical force of nature. The feeling of fear leads us to the negative feeling value realization that as physical beings we are imperfect, helpless and subjected to merciless forces of nature. But it is this realization that also awakens in us the idea of a moral supremacy over nature, namely, that in spite of our physical vulnerability we stand morally firm against the greatest power of nature.

Our ability to think of ourselves as morally independent of nature and thereby able to surpass our fears of mortality, sickness, and other negative aspects tied to our physical nature, produces in us a feeling of respect for ourselves as rational and moral beings. One can see that in contrast to beauty and ugliness, sublimity is not attributed to the object itself, but rather to the power of our mind. The fact that sublimity is attributed to subjects rather than objects does not exclude the importance of the.

For example Clewis ,. However, if it is merely rational ideas that invoke the sublime, then it is difficult to explain the source of the feeling of displeasure in the sublime.

A Comparative Study of Trainee Translators

The object is required for the experience of perceptual and imaginative failure. That is, the feeling of pleasure in the sublime reveals the purposiveness of the subject for the faculty of theoretical and practical reason and its supersensible ideas of infinity and freedom respectively. This contrasts with the feeling of pleasure in the beautiful object, which reveals the purposiveness of the object for our cognitive abilities of imagination and understanding. The distinction between the two ways that purposiveness can be exhibited is mentioned by Kant in the following:.

While beauty reveals the objects purposiveness for our cognitive abilities, the sublime, on the other hand, reveals the purposiveness of the subject for the faculty of reason. However, it is not merely the subjective purposiveness of the judging subject that the sublime reveals. Accordingly, it is the disagreement between the imagination and faculty of reason that reveals the presence of reason and which brings with it the feeling of pleasure:.

The essential role of the object for the sublime is also emphasized by Deligiorgi The faculty of reason is present in the feeling of displeasure in fact, it is precisely because of its presence that imagination reveals itself as inadequate ; it is merely that this displeasure reveals its existence: The very act of disagreement between imagination and reason is an act of their agreement.

Thus, the sublime does not merely reveal the purposiveness of the judging subject, but also his contrapurposiveness. One can see that the feeling of displeasure and pleasure in the sublime are intrinsically connected. They have the same source and one cannot separate them. The feeling of the sublime is not an independent feeling of pain and positive pleasure, but rather pleasure is present in displeasure. That is, the same contrapurposiveness that gives rise to displeasure also gives rise to the feeling of pleasure.

Experience of the sublime is an experience of a negative pleasure 5: On the other hand, displeasure of ugliness is the result of disharmony between the imagination and the faculty of understanding. In this relation, there is no failure of the imagination, rather it is the case that sensible manifold successfully apprehended by the imagination conflicts with the understanding and its need to introduce order and unity in our experience of the world. Thus, in judgments of ugliness it is the form combination of sensible manifold of the object that is contrapurposive for the power of judgment.

After all, Kant writes that the subject of a judgment of taste is the form of the object. But if it is the form of the object that causes contrapurposiveness, then this implies that imagination must have been able to successfully comprehend the form of an ugly object and it is the form itself, that is, the comprehended sensible manifold that disagrees with the understanding. What we perceive as displeasing is the relationship between the imagination and understanding as generated by the particular form of the object.

In other words, ugliness is the result of the failure of the object to accord with our cognitive. This is clearly evident in our experience of ugliness. When we find an object ugly, we tend to ascribe the cause of the feeling of displeasure not to our inability to comprehend the object, but rather to the object itself and its failure to accord with us and our aesthetic sense. We react to such an object by turning away from it. Sublime objects are too great in size or the power for the imagination to comprehended all the parts of the object into a unified whole. Hence, there is no determinate form to be judged as purposive.

As Derrida , p. Such an explanation is hinted by Kant in the following passage:. The sublime does not reveal anything about phenomenal nature but rather it forces us to resort to ourselves, to the noumenal side of our nature. The sublime reveals something about the judging subject, namely that as a phenomenal being he is insignificant in comparison to nature, yet that he also possess a faculty of the mind that is independent of nature and according to which the nature itself is considered as embarrassingly small.

The sublime compels us to look for the purposiveness in the same place from which its contrapurposiveness is derived, that is, in us, rather than from outside us, as ugliness does. Because ugliness is not experienced as the indicator of our own cognitive limitations, there is also no need to resort to the faculty of reason in order to compensate for feelings of inadequacy by appealing to the idea of our rational and moral supremacy. To conclude, ugliness and sublime are theoretically and phenomenologically distinct aesthetic categories.

The cause of the displeasure in the sublime and ugliness is different. It is the awareness of the inadequacy of our sensible cognition that we experience as displeasing in the sublime, while displeasure of ugliness is the result of the inadequacy of the object to agree with our cognitive faculties. While disharmony in ugliness reveals.

Furthermore, both ugliness and the sublime have their own phenomenological feeling tonalities. An object can be more or less ugly, depending on the degree of disharmony between the imagination and understanding. For example, the African Marabou Stork is less displeasing than the Angler fish , since the perceptual features in the latter seem more chaotically invasive and obtrusive than in the former. That is, the feeling of respect for our own supersensible faculty of reason is much greater when encountering the immenseness of the Grand Canyon in Arizona than its less famous and smaller cousin of the Black Canyon in Nevada.

Even though Kant does not write about the degrees of sublimity, this idea is implied in the following passage:. Also both ugliness and the sublime have their own opposites. While opposite of ugliness is the beautiful, the paradigmatic negative aesthetic concept that stands in opposition to the sublime is the ridiculousness.

Kant does not write about the concept of ridiculousness in the third Critique , but I believe that his explanation of sublimity can give us some insight into the nature of the ridiculousness. This has also been noted, but not further developed by Christian Strub , p. The difference is that in the experience of the sublime, it is the rational side, that is, the reason, that dominates, the recognition of which is experienced through a feeling of respect and awe. In the experience of the ridiculous, however, it is the finite, the sensuous and the smallness of a human character that dominate and which result in the underwhelming feeling of insignificance and nonsense.

In both cases, an appeal to the faculty of reason is made. While the sublime agrees with the faculty of reason, the ridiculous on the other hand rejects and contradicts it. The sublime celebrates the victory of the noumena and of the infinite, while the ridiculous mourns its fall. What we find displeasing in the ridiculousness is the recognition of the abandonment of the noumenal subjectivity that the faculty of reason imposes on us in our reflection on the world. In light of such imposition, the sensuous and the phenomenal necessary look insignificant and disappointing.

However, precisely for the same reason that the ridiculous displeases us, it also threatens us, because the abandonment of reason anticipates the end of the purpose and meaning in life. It is this latter moment, the recognition of purposelessness inherent in the abandonment of reason that in the end prevails and evokes laughter. The laughter inherent in the ridiculous, I believe, is a defense mechanism against the thread of purposelessness that the loss of reason invokes.

As pointed out in the preceding discussion, an object is judged sublime if it evokes the idea of the supersensible in us idea of infinity in the case of the mathematical sublimity and idea of moral freedom in the case of the dynamical sublimity , yet that this idea can only be awakened in us by the means of the failure of the imagination and the accompanying feeling of displeasure.

The question is whether art works can satisfy this criterion of the sublime. That is, is there a possibility of the artistic sublime? Before proceeding with answering this question it is, however, necessary to refine the distinction between artistic sublimity and artistic representation of sublimity. In other words, an art work can present beautiful subject matter, without itself being beautiful.

Only if the artistic representation is itself beautiful, can we say that we have genuine artistic beauty. Similar is the case of artistic sublimity. It is only when the artistic representation of a sublime or non-sublime thing is itself sublime, can we say that we have genuine artistic sublimity. Artistic sublimity is not the result of the sublimity of the subject matter, but rather of the artistic representation itself i. While there are many artworks, in particular typical for romanticism of 19 th century, depicting sublime objects, they are not example of genuine artistic sublimity.

Rosalie depicts a stormy sky above the mountain range, a scenery that we would ordinarily find sublime. In this case, the painting merely imitates a naturally sublime object, the subject matter of the work, but without itself as an artistic representation being sublime. Thus, an art work can after all occasion the experience of the sublime. I think, however, that it is unlikely that we can experience perceptual and imaginative failure merely by imagining of looking at a naturally sublime object.

Rather what I believe it happens in such case is that we recognize the sublimity of the scenery depicted in the painting we recognize it because we have experienced sublime feelings when we actually were amidst of a similar scenery , but without the accompanying feeling of the sublimity.

That is, the sublimity of the scenery lingers in the painting, yet the feeling. Many writers consider works created by artists such as Mark Rothko, Barnet Newman, Yves Klein and Frank Stella as exemplary instances of genuine artistic sublimity Abaci , pp. Presumably, such works of art present the sublime by intentionally using specific combination of colors, texture, shapes and lights in order to create the impression of formlessness and limitlessness in the viewer, thereby disrupting our.

A similar distinction is noted by Abaci , pp. See Abaci , p. The overwhelming vastness of this piece, which allows the viewer to experience the weight of the material, and the giant blood-red rings that is reminiscent of an open mouth swallowing its surroundings, evokes a feeling of fear and terror, thereby inducing the experience the sublime.

If artistic sublimity is possible then it must be looked for in cases such as this, where the artistic representation itself, rather than the subject matter, is perceptually challenging for the viewer. The question is whether artistic representation itself can occasion genuine experience of the sublime? There is reason to doubt that this can be the case. My reasoning is the following. According to Kant, the feeling of sublime is evoked by the mere apprehension of the size or the power of the object.

Yet, art works are objects that are intentionally produced for a certain purpose and in judging the value of an art work this purpose must be taken into account what it ought to be. Even more, as Kant claims, not only that art works and artifacts cannot be judged without taking into account the concept of a purpose, but that they cannot even be perceived independently of the concept of a purpose:. But if this is the case, then it follows that one cannot perceive the object as a mere magnitude. Accordingly, we cannot perceive the form of the object independently as to how this form is conceptualized.

There is thus no possibility that one can abstract the concept of a purpose and have the perception of the mere magnitude of the object. Recall, Kant claims that we judge an object as sublime in an aesthetic estimation of the magnitude that is, in a direct perception. But in the case of art works and artifacts, the perception of the magnitude is mediated by the concept of a purpose; thus not in a direct perception. Rather than being overwhelmed by the size or the power of an art work, we appreciate the creative force that. The idea that intentionally produced objects cannot occasion the experience of the sublime is additionally supported by the distinction Kant makes between the aesthetic experience of the disorder that devastations of nature leave behind, and the disorder that is produced by the human will, such as the disorder that the devastations of war leave behind.

While Kant describes the experience of the former as sublime 5: Since one cannot perceptually distinguish the disorder of nature from the disorder of war, then their distinct aesthetic value must be due to the fact that one carries with it the concept of a purpose, while the other does not. On the other hand, there are some art works that express rational ideas without the preceding experience of a perceptual failure.

According to some writers, such works of art deserve to be called sublime. As Robert Clewis , p. We can become explicitly aware of these ideas in response to art. A similar argument against artistic sublimity has been given by Abaci He argues that if one must. At best, they can leave open the possibility of impure judgments of the artistic sublime.

According to my position, however, the restriction of the concept of the purpose precludes even the possibility of impure judgments of the sublime. If there is no perceptual and imaginative failure, then one cannot have an experience of both pure and impure sublimity. It is true that an object does not need to cause perceptual failure in order to express rational ideas. However, there is a substantive difference between the expression of rational ideas and being aware of such rational components in ourselves.

That is, an object can express rational ideas, such as an idea of the king of heaven, but without necessarily eliciting in us the awareness of such heavenly component in ourselves. It is the latter, not the former that makes an experience sublime. Consider for example how Kant describes the experience of the supersensible in the following two passages:. The sublime is an awareness of our rational and moral superiority over the physical and sensible nature within and outside us.

A work of art might indeed express such an idea, but such communication does not necessarily result in eliciting the awareness of such superiority in us. Consider for example a movie Caffe De Flore , by Jean Marc Vallee which tells two different love stories taking place in a different time and place. One is a story of a young single mother with a disabled son taking place in in Paris, and the other is a story of a recently divorced man in a present day Montreal.

The two stories are connected together through the idea of reincarnation and the existence of past lives. The movie is a beautiful and touching expression of a rational idea of the immortality of. To conclude, in order to experience the sublime, one must first experience the feeling of displeasure due to the perceptual and imaginative failure, because only this failure can reveal the presence of our rational faculty of the mind and its supersensible ideas. An art work can express these ideas, that is, it can sensibly present how these ideas might look like, but it cannot betray their existence.

The sublime is intimately connected with the faculty of reason and its ideas freedom, god, immortality , and as such is particularly suggestive for the expression of ideas that celebrate the rational and moral side of our being, such as the life-affirming ideas of compassions, peace, virtue, gentleness, courage, altruism, etc. Thus, the concept of the sublime cannot be applied to such works of art. But if such works of art cannot be subsumed under the notion of aesthetic of the sublime, then how can the concurrence of displeasure and pleasure, distinctive for such works of art, be explained?

In short, Kant explains an aesthetic idea as a sensible representation of two kinds of indeterminate concepts. On one hand, invisible beings, hell, eternity, god, freedom, mortality, etc. What is distinctive for them is that they can be thought, but not empirically encountered.

For example, while one can think of the idea of heaven or hell, one cannot sensibly intuit such ideas. On the other hand, love, fame, envy, death, etc.

The Do’s and Don’ts of Personal Narrative Ideas

For example, one can experience an emotion of jealousy, but one does not know how this emotion itself looks like. In other words, one does not have a determinate schema for such an idea in comparison to the schema of, say, a table. What is distinctive for both kinds of concepts is that their sensible representation, that is, an aesthetic idea, cannot be governed by any determinate rules. And this means that an aesthetic idea is a representation of imagination in its free play: In other words, an aesthetic idea exhibits free harmony between imagination and understanding i.

Because aesthetic ideas are sensible representations of concepts that cannot be directly represented there is no image of the idea of hell or of a heavenly being , they can be merely symbolic or metaphorical representations. Kant calls such metaphorical representations aesthetic attributes and describes them as.

The image of a Jupiter's eagle is not a logical attribute of the king of heaven, that is, it is not part of the concept of the king of heaven. When we think of the idea of king of heaven, we do not have in mind an image of an eagle. Rather, the image of a Jupiter's eagle only expresses certain associations connected with the idea we have of the king of heaven in terms of representing power, strength, freedom, being above the material world, etc. It is the collection of such aesthetic attributes set of associations or thoughts that constitute an aesthetic idea.

But if an art work can be aesthetically valuable because of the aesthetic idea it communicates to the audience, then this suggests that one and the same object can have both perceptual beauty or ugliness and beauty or ugliness of an aesthetic idea. Recall that an aesthetic idea is a combination of aesthetic attributes i. While perceptual form, say of an image of an Jupiter's eagle is constituted by the image of an eagle, particular patches. The distinction between perceptual beauty and ugliness and beauty or ugliness of an aesthetic idea can explain how it is possible that we find an art work aesthetically displeasing, yet aesthetically valuable at the same time.

Namely, what we find displeasing in such an art work is its perceptual form, but what we find pleasing is the aesthetic idea that the work communicates. So while displeasure of perceptual form of an art work causes us to withdraw our attention from the work, the pleasure of aesthetic idea nevertheless holds our attention. We appreciate the communication of aesthetic ideas, because they give us an intimation of the world of ideas and state of affairs that lie beyond sensory experience.

An aesthetic idea gives us an opportunity to intuit and apprehend that which cannot ever be fully presented by sensory experience alone. He refers to empirical concepts which need to be connected to empirical intuition in order to make sense of experience. Without empirical intuition, empirical concepts are mere words, without any substantive meaning.

But the same can be said about indeterminate concepts, such as the concept of a heavenly being. Only by connecting indeterminate concepts with sensible intuition by the means of aesthetic attributes can we truly say that we understand what indeterminate concepts mean. The artist distorts the body to the extreme by pushing around the excess of flesh almost to the point of being unrecognizable. The flesh of the body is reduced to a mere. Nonetheless, even though the artistic representation of the body is itself disordered and displeasing, it can still be expressive and thoughtful.

The distorted image of a female body might symbolically represent the destruction of the female body as invented by the patriarchal discourses of Western society. The expression of this idea is stimulating, thought- provoking and for this reason aesthetically significant, even though it is perceived with displeasure. There is an appealing side to ugliness, because it allows for the imagination to be highly effective and expressive of ideas that cannot be represented otherwise.

Its constitutive element is disorder and as such it is particularly suggestive for the expression of ideas that celebrate such disorder. It is related to ideas of alienation, estrangement, dehumanization, destruction, degeneration, disconcertion, absurdity, and with emotions evoking terror, horror, anxiety and fear, and which dominate the contemporary artistic production. Kant discusses this principle mainly in relation to its use in empirical concept acquisition, but in addition, he suggests that there is a connection between this principle and judgments of taste.

For example, in one of many passages supporting this connection, he writes:. The idea seems to be that judgments of taste depend on the principle of purposiveness of nature, which represents nature as a system in which all phenomena are related to each other and therefore amenable to our cognitive abilities. Places where I live or where I was raised. A comparison of personal identity marked items using mean Liker scale values.

The Iranian students' score was significantly higher than their Italian counterparts in Item 1 but lower in Item 7, which might indicate that although Iranian students display a somewhat more social and less personal identity orientation, they might care more their values and morality issues. On the other hand Italian students felt more intensely and emotionally about their living environments.

A comparison of social identity marked items using mean Likert scale values. The results shown in Figure 3 imply that Italians are less concerned about their social popularity. Popularity, as social capital, is a way to earn symbolic capital, which in turn can be arguably converted into other types of capital, particularly cultural capital. There were two items identified as marked with respect to professional identity, which are listed below:. Being considered a reliable and organized co-worker Item My future job despite its difficulties and low income.

A comparison of professional identity marked items using mean Likert scale values. Although Italian students showed a higher propensity for individual work, they seem to value professional qualities when working with other people to a higher extent, which is indicated in Item 23; they consider it more important to be valuable co-workers through being reliable and organized. Being reliable is a highly interpersonal attribute while being organized tends to be a personal characteristic yet with palpable outcomes for the people around us.

Furthermore, in reference to Item 24, Italian students seemed to consider their future job much more important than Iranian students, a result which could imply two things: Overall, in the majority of the professional identity items, the Italian students demonstrated a stronger orientation, which may indicate that they generally have a better image of their field-related abilities and prospects for developing their careers in translation.

As a final step in this survey, we explored the correlation between personal and social identity aspects on the one hand with professional identity on the other. To this end, three age groups of trainee translators were compared in terms of their mean identity scores. Figure 5 and Figure 6 display the findings, indicating a chiefly positive correlation between the three identity aspects in the age groups analyzed — except for Italian students of 19 years or younger.

Another finding was that because the comparison of the mean scores of personal and social identities in these three age groups did not differ significantly across the two national groups, we can conclude that the excluded age group, female students aged , had a significant influence on the overall identity variation between Iranian and Italian students. The different items of the questionnaire, as well as the identity aspects it addressed, were related to the concepts discussed in the sociological theories.

The results of our empirical analysis point to a stronger social identity and habitus for Iranian students and a stronger personal and professional identity orientation and habitus on the part of the Italian students; a result which suggests that social activities in translator training may be particularly suitable in an Iranian context, while personal activities maybe more suitable when training translators in an Italian context. In addition, we found a predominantly positive correlation between personal and social identities with professional identity among the age groups we decided to study for the purpose of correlation analysis.

With reference to our research questions, we are now in a position to draw some conclusions: An implication of this study in translator training might be that once we understand that different societies have different conceptions of identity as well as various identities and identity construction patterns — for example, the general distinction between individualistic Western and the social Eastern identity — then our training priorities will differ, with implications for our translation curricula, pedagogies and teaching methods.

Additionally, the types of power distribution observed in the two theories have clear implications for the description of educational practices, including translator training. Introducing the two sociologies into the classroom allows learners to experience different identity constructions, which is recommended today. We would like to extend our deep gratitude to Prof. Marcello Soffritti and Prof. Christopher Rundle for their invaluable help with the project this study was part of. We would also like to thank Prof. Silvia Bernardini for her constructive comments on a draft of this manuscript.

Our heartfelt thanks also go to all the Italian and Iranian colleagues who helped with the distribution of our survey as well as the survey participants. These items describe different aspects of identity. Please read each item carefully and consider how it applies to you. The full scale is:. Not important to my sense of who I am 1 2 3 4 5 Extremely important to my sense of who I am.

Journal of International Studies Bourdieu, Pierre Outline of a theory of practice , trans. Nice, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, Pierre In other words: Essays towards a reflexive sociology , trans. Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Science, www. Grenfell, Michael ed Pierre Bourdieu: Empowerment from Theory to Practice , Manchester, St. Latour, Bruno Reassembling the social: Bartrina eds , Oxon, Routledge: Heine, Toshio Yamagishi, and Tatsuya Kameda eds.

Snel Trampus, Rita D. After completing his MA in Translation Studies at Shahid Beheshti University, he started his translator training career in and has ever since taught undergraduate translation courses mainly at Arak University, where he got his BA in English Translation in He attended the University of Bologna once as a PhD student in , and another time as a doctoral visiting student in Starting from the definitions of culture, law, technology as well as legal and technical culture respectively, the aim of this paper is to point out the different degrees of cultural specificity in law and technology and in legal and technical language and texts.

The paper will also show to what extend the differences within the various dimensions of cultural specificity lead to differences in methods and procedures of translation. Ausgehend von den Definitionen von Kultur, Recht und Technik einerseits sowie von Rechts- und Technikkultur andererseits wird in diesem Beitrag der unterschiedliche Grad von Kulturspezifik in Recht und Technik und in ihren sprachlich-textuellen Manifestationen herausgearbeitet. Kulturspezifik, Rechtssprache, technische Sprache, cultural specificity, legal language, technical language.

Ziel des Beitrags ist es zum einen, den unterschiedlichen Grad der Kulturspezifik in Recht und Technik und ihren sprachlich-textuellen Manifestationen herauszuarbeiten. Rechtliche Regeln werden, wie von Marschelke Nutzung einerseits bestimmte Voraussetzungen mitbringen muss, dessen Erfordernissen aber andererseits auch bei der Gestaltung der Technik Rechnung zu tragen ist. Recht und die damit verbundene Kultur sind m.

Bei qualitativer Betrachtung stellt sich dann heraus, dass Technikkultur im Korpus nur mit den Termini Stiftung und Verein verbunden ist. Welche kulturspezifischen Unterschiede bestehen zwischen Recht und Technik auf der sprachlichen und der textuellen Ebene? Welche Unterschiede zwischen Recht und Technik wirken sich in besonderer Weise auf die kulturspezifischen Unterschiede aus? Rechtssprache ist in erster Linie eine Institutionensprache Busse Diese erfordert eine doppelte rechtlich-sprachliche Abstraktion. Civil Law - vs.

Nur in mehrsprachigen nationalen Rechtsordnungen Beisp.: Schweizer Recht und in supranationalen Rechtsordnungen Beisp.: In der Technik dagegen sind es tendenziell ein und dieselben Begriffe, die durch unterschiedliche Benennungen zum Ausdruck gebracht werden. Bei der Entwicklung der technischen Terminologien gibt es jedoch, wie von Arntz Dennoch gibt es auch in der Technik Bereiche, in denen die Terminologie nicht systematisch genormt ist, so die Kfz-Technik Arntz Definitionen sind dabei nicht nur ein Recht-, sondern auch ein Technik-Thema, was anhand der nationalen und internationalen Normung sichtbar wird z.

Auch gibt es zahlreiche Terminologieportale mit genormter Technik-Terminologie z. Im Recht ist es, v. So gibt es beispielsweise von den das Ermittlungs- und das Zwischenverfahren des italienischen Strafprozesses kennzeichnenden neun Textsorten nur drei, die eine Entsprechung in den vergleichbaren Abschnitten des deutschen Strafprozesses haben:.

Gliederungskonventionen in deutschen und italienischen Gesetzestexten. Schweizer Recht oder supranationalen Rechtsordnung Beisp.: Eine wichtige Rolle spielen in diesem Zusammenhang Definitionen vgl. Diese sind allerdings einerseits nicht zu jedem Terminus oder Begriff vorhanden. Dies ist, wie von Reinart Diese kann in der Technik auch die Inhaltsbestandteile bzw. Apply the parking brake firmly. Shift the automatic transaxle to Park or manual transaxle to Neutral.

Da Ausgangs- und Zielkultur hier allerdings zusammenfallen, kann allenfalls von einer Anpassung an Sprachtraditionen die Rede sein. Die sich hier manifestierenden Besonderheiten der Rechtssprache als Fachsprache vgl. Der Beitrag basiert auf einem Vortrag, den ich dort am Ein internationales Handbuch zur Fachsprachenforschung und Terminologiewissenschaft , 2. Hoffmann, Lothar Kommunikationsmittel Fachsprache. Le-Hong, Kai und Peter A. Traduction de textes juridiques: Patti, Salvatore a cura di Codice Civile Italiano.

Perspectives for the New Millenium. Akten des Symposiums Mannheim, 3. Tilch, Horst und Frank Arloth Hrsg.

Bilder und audiovisuelle Materialien in der Technik generell eine wichtige Rolle spielen Arntz Her other research areas include legal language, notably notarial language, didactics of specialised translation, terminography and lexicography. Eva Wiesmann also works als a freelance legal translator and lexicographer. Political opinion articles as an ideologically-loaded type of political discourse are largely produced to serve the society to which they belong.

When translated, they could be manipulated to meet the socio-political needs of the target society. Translation Studies scholars have adopted a variety of critical approaches and methodologies to account for such manipulations, inspired by the principles of Critical Discourse Analysis CDA and under the critical translation movement. To achieve this objective, a collection of 31 English opinion articles, along with their corresponding Persian translations, are analyzed. At the textual level, however, some modifications are suggested.

Critical Discourse Analysis, CDA, ideological square, manipulation, news translation, political discourse, opinion articles. Regardless of their methodology, all the scholars have unanimously agreed that the political context in which the target text TT is produced leads the trans-editor s [1] to manipulate the TT.

Manipulation is a term originally concerned with literary translation and was first used by the scholars of the Manipulation School e. Some scholars consider it as translation acts by means of which linguistic and cultural barriers are transcended and communication is facilitated e. Therefore, manipulation has also been considered a filter through which a specific representation of ST is promoted e.

• stories from the top of my head 3 Manual.
• The Secret of Personal Narrative Ideas That No One Is Talking About.
• .
• .
• Code of Honor (Texas Code Series Book 1).

The current study considers manipulation from the latter perspective. The question is, which analytical framework can serve to investigate manipulation in translation from this perspective? First, the appropriateness of the framework will be argued. Then, we will show how the framework links with Translation Studies and serves as a model for investigating manipulation in political discourse translation through the analysis of 31 Persian translations of English opinion articles.

Since the ideological turn in Translation Studies, ideological and political factors have drawn the attention of translation scholars to the study of translation context. That is, CDA and TS share the idea that textual features should not be interpreted without considering the ideological context of text production and reception.

• 1.1 Research Questions and Hypotheses;
• Garesh: The hybrid investigation;
• The Downside Risk of Personal Narrative Ideas.

Ietcu-Fairclough points out that translators work under certain socio-political conventions and restrictions which serve the wider values and ideologies of power holders in society. Thus, the strategies employed by translators are aimed at the production of a text in line with set values. This is even more significant when it comes to political discourse translation, in general, and opinion articles, in particular.

Political opinion articles, as opposed to hard news articles, are believed to be significantly loaded with ideologies Bell ; van Dijk As van Dijk That is, they are consistent with the beliefs and values of the dominant socio-political frameworks of the institutions themselves and the wider society to which they belong Hodge and Kress, Likewise, Vuorinen and Darwish maintain that translation in news agencies is influenced by institutional policies and ideologies to justify and control actions and their outcomes.

Therefore, translators are not the only people who decide on the translation; their work is edited by others such as senior translators, editors and the chief editor Hursti ; Bielsa Over the past few years, translation scholars have attempted to apply CDA in their studies to look at the influence of such conditions on news translation e.

It should be noted that these studies are flawed for two reasons. Second, others are case studies which analyse a single article e. Therefore, there is a need for a study with a broader set of data which goes beyond mere lexical analysis. The portrayal of the conflicts between Iran and the Western world have also been among the points of interest in investigating the influence of ideology on the news language.

They argue that the translation strategies used are realized through the purposeful application of linguistic expressions both at lexical and grammatical level or non-linguistic elements such as images, photos, and graphic drawings. Sanatifar and Jalalian Daghigh , investigate, from a socionarrative perspective, how the Iranian media, through translation, directed the public perception of the social and political realities about its nuclear program through reframing as it was already framed in the Western media. Unlike Khanjan et al.

Other studies have compared Western news texts in English with Iranian-Persian texts covering the same topic. The results of their study show that the British media delegitimized the Iranian nuclear program, whereas the Iranian media portrayed it positively. Their study highlights a few points. First, they have gone beyond mere analysis of lexical choices by taking transitivity procedures, namely nominalization, and passivization, into account. Second, by looking at the domestic media, which support government policies, and by comparing it with the Western media, they shed light on socio-political factors, which based on CDA, explain different uses of language by the media.

Nevertheless, without denying the merit of these studies, it is noticeable that by merely looking at parallel texts produced in two different contexts, it is not possible to uncover manipulations carried out by news trans-editors. At the macro level is the society which is concerned with power relationships at the level of local interlocutors and global societal structures. In his approach, social power is understood as a means of controlling the mind and action of groups and people.

At the micro level is discourse, which refers to various discourse structures language encapsulating ideologies. Van Dijk points out that the meaning of the text is embedded in the discourse by language producers, and as such, it exists and is represented in their minds. He characterizes it as a polarization of Us and Them through which the positive and negative features of in-group Us and out-group Them are de emphasized by applying 24 discourse structures.

That is, the polarization between Us and Them is manifested via all linguistic dimensions of a text, which are interpreted as one of the following overall strategies:. Besides the 24 discourse structures identified by van Dijk , ideology may be represented in the text via syntactic features of language as well. Since van Dijk has not included these features in his framework, the linguistic toolkits which are set forth by Hodge and Kress , and Fowler and Fairclough , i.

In the following, a background of Iranian media policies and what forms the ideological Us and Them in the country is provided. In , with the Islamic revolution in Iran, a referendum was held and the Islamic Republic of Iran as the socio-political system of the country was officially recognized. Accordingly, in the same year, a new constitution was ratified to adjust the rules and norms to the newly-established system.

In addition, having the support of the European powers, specifically the UK, the USA has attempted to stop the country from being a nuclear power in the region Hastedt The foreign policy of Iran is also reflected in its constitution. On the one hand, Article 56 of Chapter 8 of the Iranian constitution categorizes a number of countries, mainly the U. A and Israel, as hostile governments. These points have also been stressed in Iranian media law. Chapter 4 of the law bans several cases, among which are those that noticeably. Chapter 2 of the law states the missions of the media.

Among the missions described in this chapter are those that. The data collection began by looking at the target text published on the Iranian news website Diplomacy-e-Irani Iranian Diplomacy. A total of 31 Persian news opinion articles, which were all translated from English into Persian, were obtained from the archive of the news website within a period of 3 months, dated from April 1, , to June 30, In fact, more and more ideologically-loaded articles were then being published. Mic, Executive Magazine, and The Atlantic. After identifying the ideological significance of the source texts see Figure 2 , through comparing the source ST and target text TT , the ideological mismatches are described, categorized and evaluated.

Analysis of the source text per se suggests that the ST representations can be categorized into four major patterns as follows:. In the following section, the results obtained from comparing the ST and the TT are presented. The given examples reflect the manipulation patterns in Persian translation of the opinion articles which are based on various procedures.

Since the inclusion of all procedures falls beyond the scope of the study, the complete list of the procedures is separately provided in Appendix A Jalalian The best means of disarming Iran is to insist on a simple and basic redline […] Takeyh, Comparison of the ST and the TT shows some mismatches, which could be explained in terms of ideological manipulations. In fact, by categorizing a particular group who favor the Islamic Republic the political regime , the ST author refers to a minority who supports the nuclear program, but this is generalized to Iranians, as a case of creating populism in the TT.

This is a change of perspective which not only filters a negative depiction of Iran, but also, may represent the West negatively; thus, a target reader may interpret this as stopping a program which could be the right of a nation. Therefore, in all the cases discussed above, there is an attempt by the trans-editor s to block the negative representations of the in-group US in the TT.

The procedures of blocking are listed and explained in Appendix A. It would have to agree to completely open all Iranian nuclear facilities to regular inspections by the IAEA which has thus far refused to do so Purzycki, First Iran would give permission to the inspectors to enter all its nuclear sites. Some information may remain implicit, as it may be shared knowledge with the recipients and inferred from context.

However, there are other reasons for implicitation. For example, for cultural purposes such as politeness, an unacceptable expression might become implicit. In addition, political motivations may lead an author to leave an expression implicit van Dijk, While negative features of an in-group may remain implicit or mitigated through euphemism, the negative features of an out-group may be explicated van Dijk, However, this is omitted in the TT.

As such, implicitation is used to demote the negative representation of the in-group in the TT. At the last round of talks, in February in Kazakhstan, the United States and five otherworld powers offered Tehran modest concessions, including softening limits on trade using gold and other precious metals, and easing some restrictions on petrochemicalexports, if the Iranians agreed to halt production of medium-enriched uranium. The Iranians did not accept the offer Ritcher Disclaimer is a combination of positive self-representation and negative other-representation and saves face by emphasizing the positive features of an in-group and representing an out-group negatively by focusing on their negative features.

In the above example, both positive representations of the out-group and negative representation of the in-group are expressed via disclaimer. In fact, the ST depicts the out-group positively by stating that a good offer from the United States is turned down by the in-group. However, it is blocked from entering the TT by complete omission. In fact, the negative representation of the in-group, as well as the positive representation of the out-group are both manipulated in the TT. Groups and individuals might be addressed by neutral terms.

Thus, a polarized term used to refer to an in-group positively and an out-group negatively is a marker of the ideology of a group towards its in-groups and out-groups van Dijk, In the above example, the author quotes what Ashton, the leader of the Western powers in negotiations, states on the proposal which has been given by the West. As can be seen in the ST, this part of the text is a positive representation of the West and their proposal. This reveals that the trans-editors consider themselves to be members of the target society. As such, the positive representation of the Westerners is demoted by omitting some information.

Based on my personal experience, Rowhani is a polite and open character Fischer Based on my personal experience, Rowhani is a polite man with open character. In discourse, an actor can be described as a manifestation of a group ideology towards what they consider as in-group and out-group. Comparison of the ST and the TT shows no ideological manipulation. As a result, the positive representation of the in-group is preserved in the TT.

Unlike outgoing president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, he surrounds himself with very skilful and experienced diplomats Fischer His ongoing balanced policies in past posts indicate that he is a sophisticated person. These translations are both in line with the meaning of the ST words. However, the addition of some positive representation in the TT, which does not exist in the ST, intensifies the already positive representation of Rowhani in the ST.

Like the previous examples, this example represents the way DPR is manipulated. By applying certain procedures, the ST positive representation of the in-group is promoted in the TT. The procedures of promotion are explained in Appendix A. The discourse of counterfactuals warns about something that would happen as the result of the problem created by another group. Comparison of the ST and the TT suggests that the negative representation of the out-group is transferred from the ST to the TT without any manipulation. Therefore, the negative representation of the out-group is preserved in the TT.

In the above example, the author blames Obama for sending arms to Syria for the problem it may cause in the path toward a probable deal between Iran and the USA. However, it is worth mentioning the few ideological manipulations. That is, the reader may imagine that the USA has sent heavy arms rather than small arms.

As such, the negative representation of Obama and his policies are promoted in the TT. As stated earlier, the ST analysis suggests four patterns of representation. In total, 82 percent of the ST representations are in conflict with the cases which are stipulated in the Iranian media law.

As a result, it is far from expectation that the translators simply transfer the undesired representations to the TT intact. Table 2 summarizes the ST representations as manipulated in the TT. As the table displays, the undesired representations have been treated differently from the desired representations.

The four identified strategies of manipulation and their percentages in translations. The first category is the undesired negative representation of the in-group. The second category is an undesirable positive representation of the out-group. The third category is a desirable negative representation of the out-group. The last category is a desirable positive representation of the in-group. As the table reveals, while preserving does not exist in the first two groups, it is dominantly used in the last two groups DNR and DPR.

This suggests that the trans-editors have preserved the positive representations of the in-groups and negative representations of the out-groups. One may argue that preserving may not be a manipulative pattern. However, by comparing its use among the four categories of the ST representations, it can be concluded that preserving has been applied deliberately to highlight the desired representations. As stated earlier, translation is an act of recontextualization.

When a text is recontextualized, it is influenced by the contextual factors of the target society. Even though some transformations are unavoidable in the process of translation due to linguistic and cultural factors, the ones which are evident in this study cannot be interpreted as a result of constraints imposed by such related aspects. In fact, the data analysis suggests that the political discourse translators working at Iranian Diplomacy seem to have been restricted, among many, by the ideological factors governing the institution they work for. The institution per se is part of the society in which certain values are shared.

The state ideology of the Iranian government is a good example of such conditions. The Islamic revolution has resulted in forming a polarized categorization which has been reflected in both the constitution and the media law. This takes place through text producers who shape the discourse to meet the expectations of the institution they work for. In fact, text producers, being aware of the commission they have and guided by the factors underlying ideological square, produce a text which reflects the ideology of the powerholders through their discursive practices.

Analysis of the data shows that the ST consists of representations which conflict with the stance of the Iranian government toward the in-group Us and the out group Them. Through the manipulative procedures, the undesired and desired representations are formed into representations which recreate a new discourse for the target text audience. The purpose of this appears to ensure that the target text is in accordance with the values and ideology of the target society. The proposed CDA-based model for the analysis of manipulation in political discourse translation.

The model which is developed through modifications to the originally monolingual CDA of van Dijk tends to focus on the ideological square in the context of the target society. The ideology of the target society power holders, which has roots in their stance toward the conflicts with foreign countries, is reflected in the TT discourse through manipulation strategies. It appears that the square can accommodate manipulation in the bilingual context of political discourse translation. However, applying this to translation needs some modification. As such, it is concluded that the trans-editors tend to manipulate the ST representations based on Figure 3 illustration.

Illustration of the four identified strategies to investigate manipulation in political discourse translation. As the figure reveals, trans-editors tend to positively represent their own group Us and negatively represent the other group Them. The strategies, except for preserving, are implemented through applying some manipulative procedures which are explained in Appendix A.

The linguistic toolkits provided by van Dijk and the ones provided and shared among other CDA models, including Fairclough, Hodge and Kress, and Fowler, seem to be not enough in explaining all the manipulation procedures, most probably due to their monolingual nature of analysis. Therefore, by taking a descriptive-explanatory approach, the study has attempted to investigate the ones which are not explained by CDA see Appendix A. The proposed model conceptualizes the important topic of manipulation in mediation of ideology as performed by political discourse translators.

By being aware of the proposed model, translation critiques would be better able to make informed criticism of manipulation in translation. It would also help translation teachers and material developers to better explain and illustrate manipulations to their translator trainees, specifically in courses which deal with journalistic and political text translation.

In addition, it facilitates the path of future researchers as it provides them with an analytical framework to uncover the manipulated discourses in translation. The current study investigated manipulation in translation by focusing on 31 opinion articles translated form English to Persian.

Further studies on other genres of political discourse in other societies with different language pairs could be enlightening in developing the proposed model. To represent an undesired representation of ST from a different perspective in TT so that the trace of the ST representation is removed.

To replace an undesired negative representation of ST with an item in TT which nullifies the representation. To nullify an undesired negative representation of ST with a vague expression in TT, by not providing the details of the ST representation in TT, which leads to nullifying the representation. To minimize an undesired negative representation of ST by attributing the interests of a person or a specific group high ranking officials to many people.

To replace an undesired negative representation of ST with a positively-loaded item in TT so as to censor the representation. To partially remove an undesired representation of ST in TT so that the degree of representation is minimized. To lower the loading of an undesired representation of ST in TT by nominalizing, by which the details of subject and object are removed.

To particularize an undesired negative representation of ST in TT as opposed to the generality of a ST representation so as to lower the load of negativity. To omit the subject of an undesired negative representation of ST in TT as opposed to an active structure so as to remove the responsibility of the actor s. To intensify a desired negative representation of ST by either replacing it with a more negatively-loaded item or adding an extra negatively-loaded item.

Fairclough, Norman Critical Discourse Analysis: Fowler, Roger Language in the News: Hastedt, Glenn American Foreign Policy: Hermans, Theo The Manipulation of Literature: Hodge, Robert and Gunther Kress. Studies in Intercultural Communication 13, no. Mearsheimer, John and Stephen M. International Journal on Translation Studies 24, no. Studia Translatologica, Ser B, no. He has a number of publications and has presented in several international conferences. The author has published numerous articles in specialized journals and has presented widely in international conferences. His main research interests are: She is the author and co-author of a number of journal papers and has presented in several international conferences.

Her main research areas are Translation, journalism, News discourse and editing. This study examines the effect of following a translation training programme at postgraduate level on the way trainee translators justify the strategies applied to solve translation problems, in particular, the positions they adopt while discussing their translation decisions. The Translation Studies programme at the University of Birmingham is used as a case study. The trainee translators completed a translation task which involved commenting on translation problems and translation strategies according to a pre-prepared form while translating a text.

This task, preceded by a questionnaire, was repeated at three stages throughout the academic year This paper reports on a part of the findings resulting from the data analysis. It suggests that trainee translators become more assertive in the justification of their solutions to translation problems as a consequence of following a translation training programme.

This study also indicates that the students seem to be less willing to engage with alternative viewpoints by the end of the programme. Rico argues that, at European universities,. In his view, this was due to the new development in translation training programmes after the Bologna process which started in and aimed at establishing a common system of learning and teaching in universities across Europe and which is based on student-centred pedagogical principles and student-teacher interaction Rico Since translator training at university level is still considered a recent phenomenon and insufficiently researched in Translation Studies Pym This article starts with providing a description of the general design of the study and the research methods employed.

This is followed by an overview of the procedures used to analyse the data. The findings of the study are then presented. Although this may raise concerns about a possible bias, being familiar with the programme can also be seen as an advantage when it comes to interpreting the results of the study. Even though it is difficult to generalize on the basis of one case study, hopefully this research offers data which will be of interest to the wider translation training community.

Universities in the UK offer different types of degrees in Translation Studies at different levels: Concerning masters-level programmes, universities either focus on translation alongside other types of studies comparative literature, interpreting, subtitling, TESOL, linguistics and intercultural communication , such as the MA in Translation and Linguistics at the University of Westminster, or offer programmes in specific language pairs MA in Chinese — English Translation at The University of Bristol or contexts MA in Translation in a European Context at Aston University.

Although these generalist programmes may differ in terms of the way the modules are organized throughout the academic year and their focus, they share many characteristics. Employing the MA in Translation Studies at the University of Birmingham as a case study can be particularly useful for translation training programmes sharing the same characteristics or aspects of this programme. For example, these programmes follow the UK higher education system; include national, European and overseas students; allow students to work with a variety of languages; and give the students the opportunity to work on research and translation projects to complete the programme.

Lecturers in such programmes are of different nationalities and have professional translation experience. These programmes also offer students core and optional modules which aim at developing a range of translation-oriented skills, such as linguistic, intercultural, instrumental and social skills.

A variety of research methods were employed in the present study. A questionnaire was initially used in order to collect background information about the trainee translators attending the Translation Studies programme at the University of Birmingham, to define the context of the study and the variables affecting translator training. This preliminary approach was then followed by a translation task. The students were required to perform a translation task which included translating a text and simultaneously commenting on the translation according to a pre-prepared form. The source text was an excerpt from a tourist information brochure.

Translators’ Identities within Approaches to Translation Sociology:

The text was also short to encourage students to participate in the study as the task can be time consuming. Students were required to translate the text into another language as they speak different native languages. They were asked to assume that the target audience was similar to that of the source text.

Students were informed that they were free to use dictionaries or reference material and discuss their translation with whoever they wish and no time frame was given. The trainees were asked to complete a form whilst translating. This provided them with a systematic way of recording all information related to their decision-making processes whilst completing the task. The form included six sections which allowed the participants to record: Literature on translation problems indicates that there is no agreement on a clear definition of what a translation problem is see Toury Therefore, no specific definition of translation problems was given to the students in order to examine the way they perceive these problems.

They were not provided with any specific classification of translation problems, information sources or strategies to avoid offering a list of predefined categories that would force them either to select a category, which may not reflect their actual response, or skip filling in sections of the form because they could not find an appropriate answer.

The information resources were defined as hard copy documents such as dictionaries , electronic sources or human sources for example, a fellow student Gile Thus, the definition of strategies was: The data for this case study was collected at three stages during the academic year in the Autumn, Spring and Summer terms and the analysis involved a comparison of data between the three periods. During the three stages of the data collection process, the participants were provided with texts of a similar genre tourist texts and length to translate no more than words.

The data produced by the study was analysed using the appraisal system developed by Martin and White , within the framework of Functional Grammar Halliday and Matthiessen , for exploring interpersonal meanings by explaining and describing the way language users evaluate arguments, adopt textual stances and negotiate positioning and relationships White It served to examine the language employed by the students in discussing their translation decisions in order to investigate the way they positioned themselves in their arguments.

According to Martin and White Since the focus in the present study is on the stance adopted by trainee translators while discussing their translation decisions, the data provided by the students was analysed and discussed according to the Engagement domain of the appraisal system.

Bare assertions obviously contrast with these heteroglossic options in not overtly referencing other voices or recognising alternative positions. As a consequence, the communicative context is construed as single voiced Martin and White Examining the system of engagement as used by the students will allow us to investigate the way they positioned their voices in respect to other voices in the communicative context construed while discussing their translation decisions. According to the system of engagement, heteroglossic clauses can be divided into: In dialogic contractive, speakers or writers can either:.

They indicate that their proposition is one of a wide range of possible positions by either:. The unit of analysis in functional terms is the clause complex: One of the problems with applying appraisal theory to the language used by the students is that many clauses included more than one token of evaluation which posed difficulty in classifying these clauses, as was the case in example Therefore, although in Functional Grammar the unit of analysis is the clause complex, it was more effective in the present study to consider both the clause complex and tokens of evaluation as units of analysis, and discuss the data accordingly.

Based on this, in example 1, we have two attitudinal clauses and four attitudinal tokens in the two clauses, each including instances of both denial and counter-expectancy. Because this was a small-scale study, data provided in the questionnaire was analysed manually. Raw frequencies and percentages were used to quantify the data.

Percentage difference across the three stages was calculated using an online calculator [1] in order to examine whether there was a difference in the percentages of the raw frequencies in the data collected. In the analysis, we focused on the most prominent patterns which reflected a change in the data collected throughout the academic year. A test of statistical significance was also performed in order to test whether there was a significant difference in the data provided by the students across the three stages.

It has to be acknowledged that this methodology, coupled with the small sample size and the fact that a number of participants opted to leave the study before it was concluded, creates the possibility of several types of bias: In order for the conclusions made in this study to validated, the observations would need to be repeated with a new group and a clear hypothesis established before the start of data collection. However, using this test helped us to determine how high or low the probability that the decrease or increase in the data throughout the three stages was due to chance.

The chi-square test compares the values of the data proportionally where probability values P of 0. Thus, the null hypothesis H 0 in the present study is that any difference between the data presented by the students at each stage is due to chance, and therefore not significant.

If the calculated value of the chi-square is less than or equal to the probability value of 0. There was a drop-off of The data of the students who dropped out of the study was removed and therefore only the data of the twelve students four males and eight females who took part in all three stages of the study was included.

It seems that the participants had many common characteristics: On the other hand, these participants came from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The respondents who took part in all the three stages of the study were given codes according to their gender M for male and F for female , in addition to a numeric value added to each of these codes.

The two letter code system of languages ISO was also used to indicate the language of the target text. Most of the participants translated the text from English into their first language Chinese: DE as English was their second language. Only three of the students were native English speakers and therefore translated the text into their second language French: The decision to use English as the source language in this study may have affected the translators' levels of confidence, as students translating into their native language might present different levels of self-assertion than students translating into their second language.

However, this was alleviated by choosing a text with a certain level of syntactical difficulty that is meant to pose the same level of difficulty for both native English speakers and speakers of English as a second language, as previously mentioned. In addition, the interest in this study was in the way the translators perceived translation problems and justified their decisions rather than in how they approached these specific texts.

Clauses used by the students in the forms were categorised as monoglossic when they did not include any tokens of engagement, and heteroglossic when they did.

Thus they were classified according to whether the students negotiated their decisions by making a reference to alternative voices and viewpoints or presented their justifications objectively, as is clear in example In this example, student F8FR justified including an explanation of her translation of the title of the text into French, using monoglossic and heteroglossic clauses. In some cases, an elliptical subject and finite were assumed. Since these cases are less clear cut than those where the subject and finite are explicit, and they involve an extra layer of interpretation on the part of the researcher, these clauses were considered separately from the explicit ones, so as to offer a more transparent view of the analysis.

Table 1 gives an overview of results. By looking at Table 1, we can notice that the students used more monoglossic clauses than heteroglossic clauses while discussing translation problems, which is expected. A diachronic comparison shows that the number of monoglossic clauses increased by 2. This number further increased by 1. This suggests that students showed a stable preference towards monoglossic clauses throughout the programme.

Concerning the number of heteroglossic tokens, the comparison of the three stages of data analysis indicates that the number of heteroglossic tokens used in the language offered by the students decreased by 0. This supports the H 1, and suggests that the decrease in the number of heteroglossic tokens by the end of the year is not due to chance. Thus, despite the fact that no significant changes were observed in the number of heteroglossic clauses, the decrease in the number of heteroglossic tokens towards the end of the year is significant and the changes in the percentages of heteroglossic clauses and tokens are parallel and consistent with one another, as Figure 1 shows.

This could allow us to tentatively hypothesise that trainee translators become more assertive after following a translation training programme. The heteroglossic tokens provided by the students in the forms were classified into contractive and expansive tokens. This classification was based on whether the students included or excluded alternative viewpoints while discussing their translation decisions.

When students included alternative viewpoints, they used expansive tokens of the type employed in example When students excluded alternative viewpoints, they used contractive tokens, similar to the one employed by student M2DE in example 4 below. Both contractive and expansive tokens were employed by the trainee translators in their discussion of translation decisions.

Comparing the number of contractive and expansive tokens out of the total number of heteroglossic tokens indicates that most of the tokens used by the students were contractive see example 4 above , challenging other textual voices, rather than expansive, through which they allowed alternative opinions to take part in the argument during the three stages, as in example 3 see Figure 2. The percentage for the contractive and expansive tokens used by the students. The comparison of the percentages of expansive tokens across the three stages indicates that they remained stable, as Table 2 shows.

This indicates that the change in the number of contractive tokens is not due to chance. This suggests that translation training affects the way students present their discussion of translation problems, making them less concerned about excluding alternative opinions and viewpoints while following a translation training programme. The expansive tokens used by the students in the forms were of an entertaining type, where the students showed their subjectivity while opening their arguments for discussion, as is evident in example 5 below.

Concerning the types of contractive token used, the students first proclaimed and limited the scope of their arguments by either pronouncing or concurring with different opinions, as is evident in examples 6 and The students also disclaimed and rejected contrary positions by either using counter expectancy conjunctions or negation, as is clear in example 8.

By classifying the contractive tokens employed by the students into disclaim and proclaim, we will examine whether the students excluded alternative opinions and closed down their arguments by challenging alternative textual voices, using tokens of disclaim, or by endorsing different opinions through the employment of tokens of proclaim.

This will help us investigate in more depth the changes in the manner in which trainee translators justified their decisions while following the translation training programme. The comparison of the percentages of disclaim and proclaim tokens used by the students out of the total number of contractive tokens indicates the overall prominence of disclaim tokens throughout the three stages, as Figure 3 shows. The percentage for the types of contractive tokens used by the students. Table 3 indicates that the percentages of tokens of proclaim remained stable across the three stages.

By comparing the percentages of contractive tokens of disclaim out of the total number of words, we find that the number of tokens where the students disclaimed alternative opinions decreased by 1. This result supports the H 1 and suggests that this is not due to chance and could be related to translation training. The decrease in the number of tokens of disclaim reflects the decrease in the total number of contractive tokens.

This also suggests that the students become less willing to engage with alternative viewpoints after following a translation training programme. This study of the engagement system in the data provided by the students indicates a decrease in the number of heteroglossic tokens by the end of the academic year in comparison with the beginning of the year.

This finding may indicate that trainee translators adopt a more assertive positioning in their discussion of translation problems after following a translation training programme. This assertiveness was reflected in the decrease in the number of contractive tokens, more specifically tokens of disclaim, towards the end of the year. This suggests that this assertive positioning on the part of trainee translators is signalled by fewer cases of heteroglossia used to challenge alternative opinions.

Thus the students seemed to be less willing to engage with alternative viewpoints, which could be interpreted as an increased confidence in their own judgement.