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Adventure, diving, surfing, hiking, walking and just about anything else done once you leave your sofa! People all over the world trust our guides, filled with locally-sourced information. Our popular walking guides provide local information and advice for tours through cities, parks and other tourist venues.

They make great souvenirs. Our laminated specialty cards include topics like manatee and turtle life cycles, the Northern Lights, lionfish infestation and more. Franko Maps is a wholesale publisher of maps and guides. These include everything from wall maps to small hand-held fish ID cards for divers. We offer an array of services. Virtually all Nationalist groups had strong Catholic convictions and supported the native Spanish clergy. One of the rightists' principal motives was to confront the anti-clericalism of the Republican regime and to defend the Catholic Church , [] which had been targeted by opponents, including Republicans, who blamed the institution for the country's ills.

The Church was against the Republicans' liberal principles, which were fortified by the Spanish Constitution of Franco had brought in the mercenaries of Spain's colonial Army of Africa Spanish: The Spanish Legion committed atrocities—many men, women and children were killed, and the army carried out summary executions of leftists. The repression in the aftermath was brutal. In Asturias, prisoners were tortured. Articles 24 and 26 of the constitution had banned the Society of Jesus. This proscription deeply offended many within the conservative fold.

The revolution in the Republican zone at the outset of the war, in which 7, clergy and thousands of lay people were killed, deepened Catholic support for the Nationalists. Catalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal. Left-wing Catalan nationalists sided with the Republicans, while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less vocal in supporting the government due to anti- clericalism and confiscations occurring in areas within its control.

Basque nationalists , heralded by the conservative Basque Nationalist Party , were mildly supportive of the Republican government, although some in Navarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons influencing conservative Catalans. Notwithstanding religious matters, Basque nationalists, who were for the most part Catholic, generally sided with the Republicans, although the PNV, Basque nationalist party, was reported passing the plans of Bilbao defenses to the nationalists, in an attempt to reduce the duration and casualties of siege.

The Spanish Civil War exposed political divisions across Europe. The right and the Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, including labor unions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism. Anti-war and pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential of escalating into a second world war.

The Spanish Civil War involved large numbers of non-Spanish citizens who participated in combat and advisory positions. Britain and France led a political alliance of 27 nations that promised non-intervention in the Spanish Civil War , including an embargo on all arms to Spain. The United States unofficially went along. Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union signed on officially, but ignored the embargo.

The attempted suppression of imported material was largely ineffective, however, and France especially was accused of allowing large shipments to Republican troops. The League of Nations ' reaction to the war was influenced by a fear of communism, [] and was insufficient to contain the massive importation of arms and other war resources by the fighting factions. Although a Non-Intervention Committee was formed, its policies accomplished little and its directives were ineffective.

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German involvement began days after fighting broke out in July Adolf Hitler quickly sent in powerful air and armored units to assist the Nationalists. The war provided combat experience with the latest technology for the German military.

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However, the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a world war for which Hitler was not ready. He therefore limited his aid, and instead encouraged Benito Mussolini to send in large Italian units. Nazi Germany 's actions included the formation of the multitasking Condor Legion , a unit composed of volunteers from the Luftwaffe and the German Army Heer from July to March The Condor Legion proved to be especially useful in the Battle of the Toledo.

Germany moved the Army of Africa to mainland Spain in the war's early stages. German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation Ursula , a U-boat undertaking, and contributions from the Kriegsmarine. The Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories, particularly in aerial combat, [] while Spain further provided a proving ground for German tank tactics.

The training which German units provided to the Nationalist forces would prove valuable. By the War's end, perhaps 56, Nationalist soldiers, encompassing infantry, artillery, aerial and naval forces, had been trained by German detachments. A total of approximately 16, German citizens fought in the war, with approximately killed, [] though no more than 10, participated at any one time. Regia Marina played a substantial role in the Mediterranean blockade, and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns, artillery, aircraft, tankettes , the Aviazione Legionaria , and the Corpo Truppe Volontarie CTV to the Nationalist cause.

The Conservative government of the UK maintained a position of strong neutrality and was supported by elites and the media, while the left mobilized aid to the Republic. It was theoretically a crime to volunteer to fight in Spain, but about 4, went anyway. Intellectuals strongly favoured the Republicans. Many visited Spain, hoping to find authentic anti-fascism. They had little impact on the government, and could not shake the strong public mood for peace. It officially endorsed the boycott and expelled a faction that demanded support for the Republican cause; but it finally voiced some support to Loyalists.

Despite the Irish government's prohibition against participating in the war, around Irishmen, followers of the Irish political activist and co-founder of the recently created political party of Fine Gael unofficially called "The Blue Shirts" , Eoin O'Duffy, known as the "Irish Brigade" , went to Spain to fight alongside Franco. Many non-Spaniards, often affiliated with radical communist or socialist entities, joined the International Brigades , believing that the Spanish Republic was a front line in the war against fascism.

The units represented the largest foreign contingent of those fighting for the Republicans. Roughly 40, foreign nationals fought with the Brigades, though no more than 18, were in the conflict at any given time. They claimed to represent 53 nations. Some Chinese joined the Brigades; the majority of them eventually returned to China, but some went to prison or to French refugee camps, and a handful remained in Spain. Though General Secretary Joseph Stalin had signed the Non-Intervention Agreement , the Soviet Union contravened the League of Nations embargo by providing material assistance to the Republican forces, becoming their only source of major weapons.

Unlike Hitler and Mussolini, Stalin tried to do this covertly. Despite Stalin's interest in aiding the Republicans, the quality of arms was inconsistent. The process of shipping arms from Russia to Spain was extremely slow. Many shipments were lost or arrived only partially matching what had been authorized. The USSR sent 2,—3, military advisers to Spain; while the Soviet commitment of troops was fewer than men at a time, Soviet volunteers often operated Soviet-made tanks and aircraft, particularly at the beginning of the war.

The Republic paid for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain gold reserves, tonnes of which was transferred through France and directly to Russia, [] which was called Moscow gold. Also, the Soviet Union directed Communist parties around the world to organize and recruit the International Brigades. Mexico's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic was its diplomatic help, as well as the sanctuary the nation arranged for Republican refugees, including Spanish intellectuals and orphaned children from Republican families.

Fearing it might spark a civil war inside France, the leftist "Popular Front" government in France did not send direct support to the Republicans. We have not done so, in order not to give an excuse to those who would be tempted to send arms to the rebels [Nationalists]. On 1 August a pro-Republican rally of 20, people confronted Blum, demanding that he send aircraft to the Republicans, at the same time as right-wing politicians attacked Blum for supporting the Republic and being responsible for provoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco.

His novel L'Espoir and the film version he produced and directed Espoir: Sierra de Teruel were a great help for the Republican cause in France. Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December , the possibility of French intervention against the Nationalists remained a serious possibility throughout the war. German intelligence reported to Franco and the Nationalists that the French military was engaging in open discussions about intervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.

A large air and sealift of Nationalist troops in Spanish Morocco was organized to the southwest of Spain. The capture of Gipuzkoa isolated the Republican provinces in the north. The Republic proved ineffective militarily, relying on disorganized revolutionary militia. The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September, unable to cope with the situation, and was replaced by a mostly Socialist organization under Francisco Largo Caballero.

Moroccans and elements of the Spanish Legion came to the rescue. A similar dramatic success for the Nationalists occurred on 17 October, when troops coming from Galicia relieved the besieged town of Oviedo , in Northern Spain. In October, the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid, [] reaching it in early November and launching a major assault on the city on 8 November. A contributory factor in the successful Republican defense was the effectiveness of the Fifth Regiment [] and later the arrival of the International Brigades, though only an approximate 3, foreign volunteers participated in the battle.

The Second Battle of the Corunna Road , a Nationalist offensive to the northwest, pushed Republican forces back, but failed to isolate Madrid. The battle lasted into January. With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonial soldiers from Morocco, Franco made another attempt to capture Madrid in January and February , but was again unsuccessful. The city was taken by Franco on 8 February. The operation's main objective was not met, though Nationalists gained a modest amount of territory. A similar Nationalist offensive, the Battle of Guadalajara , was a more significant defeat for Franco and his armies.

This was the only publicised Republican victory of the war. Franco used Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics; while many strategists blamed Franco for the rightists' defeat, the Germans believed it was the former at fault for the Nationalists' 5, casualties and loss of valuable equipment. The destruction had a significant effect on international opinion. The disturbance pleased Nationalist command, but little was done to exploit Republican divisions. In July, it made a move to recapture Segovia , forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbao front, but for only two weeks.

A similar Republican attack, the Huesca Offensive , failed similarly. Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on 3 June, in an airplane accident. The Battle of Brunete , however, was a significant defeat for the Republic, which lost many of its most accomplished troops. A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure. Despite having land and aerial advantages, the Battle of Belchite , a place lacking any military interest, resulted in an advance of only 10 kilometres 6. At November's end, with Franco's troops closing in on Valencia, the government had to move again, this time to Barcelona.

The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation. The city, which had formerly belonged to the Nationalists, was conquered by Republicans in January. The Francoist troops launched an offensive and recovered the city by 22 February, but Franco was forced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support. On 7 March, Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive , and by 14 April they had pushed through to the Mediterranean, cutting the Republican-held portion of Spain in two.

The Republican government attempted to sue for peace in May, [] but Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the war raged on. In July, the Nationalist army pressed southward from Teruel and south along the coast toward the capital of the Republic at Valencia, but was halted in heavy fighting along the XYZ Line , a system of fortifications defending Valencia. The Republican government then launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their territory in the Battle of the Ebro , from 24 July until 26 November, where Franco personally took command. The agreement with Britain effectively destroyed Republican morale by ending hope of an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers.

Franco's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two months of Tarragona fell on 15 January, [] followed by Barcelona on 26 January [] and Girona on 2 February. Only Madrid and a few other strongholds remained for the Republican forces. On 26 March, the Nationalists started a general offensive, on 28 March the Nationalists occupied Madrid and, by 31 March, they controlled all Spanish territory.

After the end of the war, there were harsh reprisals against Franco's former enemies. Many others were put to forced labour , building railways, draining swamps, and digging canals. Hundreds of thousands of Republicans fled abroad, with some , fleeing to France. Of the 17, refugees housed in Gurs, farmers and others who could not find relations in France were encouraged by the Third Republic, in agreement with the Francoist government, to return to Spain.

Along with other "undesirable" people, the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment camp before being deported to Nazi Germany. About 5, Spaniards died in the Mauthausen concentration camp.

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After the official end of the war, guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquis well into the s, gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population. In , a group of republican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, invaded the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after 10 days. The Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30,—35, children from their zone, [] starting with Basque areas, from which 20, were evacuated. This was against initial opposition from both the government and charitable groups, who saw the removal of children from their native country as potentially harmful.

On arrival two days later in Southampton , the children were dispersed all over England, with over children accommodated in Wales. Most were repatriated to Spain after the war, but some still remained in Britain by the end of the Second World War in The death toll of the Spanish Civil War is far from clarified and remains — especially in part related to war and post-war repression — a very controversial issue. Many general historiographic works — notably in Spain — refrain from advancing any figures; massive historical series, [] encyclopedias [] or dictionaries [] might not provide any numbers or at best propose vague general descriptions; [] also more detailed general history accounts produced by expert Spanish scholars often remain silent on the issue.

The totals advanced usually include or exclude various categories.

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Scholars who focus on killings or "violent deaths" most typically list 1 combat and combat-related deaths; figures in this rubric might range from , [] to ,; [] 2 rearguard terror, both judicial and extrajudicial, recorded until the end of the Civil War: The figure they arrive at for the — period is ,; the figure for —, covering also the years of post-war deaths resulting from terror and war sufferings, is , Death totals remain debated.

British historian Antony Beevor wrote in his history of the Civil War that Franco's ensuing " white terror " resulted in the deaths of , people and that the " red terror " killed 38, Recent research has started to locate mass graves , using a combination of witness testimony, remote sensing and forensic geophysics techniques.

The view of historians, including Helen Graham , [] Paul Preston , [] Antony Beevor , [] Gabriel Jackson [] and Hugh Thomas , [] is that the mass executions behind the Nationalists lines were organized and approved by the Nationalist rebel authorities, while the executions behind the Republican lines were the result of the breakdown of the Republican state and anarchy:.

Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain, the idea of the limpieza , the "cleaning up", of the country from the evils which had overtaken it, was a disciplined policy of the new authorities and a part of their programme of regeneration. In republican Spain, most of the killing was the consequence of anarchy, the outcome of a national breakdown, and not the work of the state, although some political parties in some cities abetted the enormities, and some of those responsible ultimately rose to positions of authority. Nationalist atrocities, which authorities frequently ordered so as to eradicate any trace of "leftism" in Spain, were common.

The notion of a limpieza cleansing formed an essential part of the rebel strategy, and the process began immediately after an area had been captured. Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the first weeks of the war. Extensive killings of civilians were carried out in the cities captured by the Nationalists, [] along with the execution of unwanted individuals. These included non-combatants such as trade-unionists , Popular Front politicians, suspected Freemasons , Basque, Catalan, Andalusian , and Galician Nationalists, Republican intellectuals, relatives of known Republicans, and those suspected of voting for the Popular Front.

Nationalist forces massacred civilians in Seville, where some 8, people were shot; 10, were killed in Cordoba ; 6,—12, were killed in Badajoz [] after more than one thousand of landowners and conservatives were killed by the revolutionaries. In Granada, where working-class neighborhoods were hit with artillery and right-wing squads were given free rein to kill government sympathizers, [] at least 2, people were murdered.

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There were fewer executions than usual, however, because of the effect Guernica left on Nationalists' reputations internationally. Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics. In one particular incident, following the capture of Bilbao , they took hundreds of people, including 16 priests who had served as chaplains for the Republican forces, to the countryside or graveyards and murdered them.

Franco's forces also persecuted Protestants, including murdering 20 Protestant ministers. The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory, carried out mainly by the Luftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie: Madrid, Barcelona , Valencia, Guernica , Durango , and other cities were attacked. The Bombing of Guernica was the most controversial.

According to the Nationalists, an estimated 55, civilians died in Republican-held territories. This is considered excessive by Antony Beevor. However, it was much less than the half a million claimed during the war. The Republican government was anticlerical, and supporters attacked and murdered Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to the news of military revolt.

Like clergy, civilians were executed in Republican territories. Some civilians were executed as suspected Falangists.



As pressure mounted with the increasing success of the Nationalists, many civilians were executed by councils and tribunals controlled by competing Communist and anarchist groups. Some individuals fled to friendly embassies, which would house up to 8, people during the war. In the Andalusian town of Ronda , suspected Nationalists were executed in the first month of the war. Thirty-eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone during the war, 17, of whom were killed in Madrid or Catalonia within a month of the coup.

Whilst the Communists were forthright in their support of extrajudicial killings, much of the Republican side was appalled by the murders. Some of those in positions of power intervened personally to stop the killings. The booking process is secured and is made as simple as possible. You don't have to browse through several websites and compare prices to find cheap car rental in Francos — we will do it for you!

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