Pretty Little Liars - Vogelfrei (German Edition)

These and other contextual aspects of style were relatively easily inte- grated into a stylistics increasingly concerned with its origins in the mind of the writer and its effects upon the mind of the reader. Thus the second limi- tation of early stylistics, ii — that it ignored psychology — ceased to be a problem once stylistics had started to take context, in the form of sociologi- cal and historical background, into account.

Background is knowledge, so context in the sense of background is a psychological entity. Earlier theorists such as Richards e. But Fowler, in particular, was concerned with how society, ideology and attitude contributed to what he called mind style: Though some writers e. In the approach of Fowler, Semino and others who have used the notion of mind style, reading a literary text is seen as giving access, not just to whatever meaning is attachable to the linguistic structures, but also to a state of mind.

And yet insights from computer science which help explain how we organ- ize knowledge and create contexts have become commonplace, especially in discourse analysis, in talking about the way we understand texts, including literary ones; an example is Cook It is at the point where sameness and difference interact that she locates both style and translation. Cognitive stylistics, then, following the way in which linguists such as Fowler linked psychology and society, has made it possible to integrate as- pects i and ii above with aspect iii: What they share with cognitive theories based directly on cognitive linguistics, such as cognitive theories of metaphor and foregrounding, both considered in Chapter 4, is an emphasis on psychology and the view that meaning is not autonomous from thought but is constructed by human minds cf.

This implies an emphasis on the reader, point iv above. It has even been suggested, by Gutt A fuller treatment of style would in fact require a fuller treatment of cognitive and pragmatic is- sues, as Chapters 2 and 4 in particular attempt to show. Context can be defined as the psychological and social circumstances under which language is used Stockwell a: Lecercle sees both generative grammar and structuralism as in- complete because neither can deal with the remainder, especially as it is used in literary texts.

Thus pragmatic approaches to literature invariably stress, according to Watts Pragmatics, with its emphasis on context, also touches on one of the central problems of translation: But we recall that Venuti It is one of the assumptions made throughout this book that the study of translation will need to consider all these factors, and that a cognitive stylistic approach seems the one most likely to make this possible. If we go back for a minute, and retrace our steps in reverse through cognitive to sociological stylistics, to structuralist stylistics and the structur- alist linguistics on which it was based, we can find there the origin of another strand of linguistic thought which developed the notion of the particular, as opposed to the universal, but which has followed a different path from the concern with individual stylistic choice.

It will be mentioned here because of its relevance to translation, especially the translation of style, and because it is not mentioned much in most current works on translation. This concern for the close link between language and thought is also seen in the anthropological structuralism of writers such as Levi-Strauss , or the literary structuralism of Barthes or Culler , and can be seen in part as a development of the philosophy of 19th century writers such as von Humboldt e.

When linguists and translation scholars consider the language-thought link, they usually think of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, based on the work of these two linguists see Sapir ; Whorf Sapir and Whorf were concerned to classify the details of particular languages; the hypothesis is characterized succinctly by Crystal In common with von Humboldt they maintained that, while each language involved a unique way of seeing the world, some as- pects of language were in fact universal; this interplay of universal and culture-specific has, as we have seen, been of particular concern to later writers as diverse as Jakobson, Catford, Fowler or Tabakowska.

The consequences for translation of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, accord- ing to Hyde However, says Hyde Hyde does not, then, deny that different languages embody different ways of thinking, but he sees this as, on the one hand, not a barrier to trans- lation if pragmatic and contextual factors are taken into account and, on the other, not a problem for literature because literature by its very nature resists such limitation. Throughout the recent decades of generative linguistics, with its em- phasis on the universality of grammar, it has become common to dismiss the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis as leading to too great a relativity.

For translation studies, it is easy to see why such a rejection might be welcome. And yet, as Wierzbicka Pinker rejects not only the strong version of Sapir-Whorf but also the weaker view that language and thought may affect one another in ways that distin- guish different languages.

Wierzbicka is perfectly clear about whether words merely reflect relativity or indeed shape determinism ways of thinking: She is thus arguing that a view in which there is no room for relativity is ethnocentric. Interestingly, a number of other linguists have maintained that univer- sality and relativity are not entirely opposed. In other words, when getting ready to speak a particular language it is necessary to adopt or one cannot help adopting the mindset of that language.

For translation, this sug- gests that, though individual languages may not represent an implacable, unique, untranslatable reality, they may nevertheless tend to relate to a par- ticular mindset. For this reason Slobin He mentions research by Ervin Hyde would see a mitigation of the effects of cultural relativism not in universality, but in the particular nature of literature which circumvents the potential hindrance of an indissoluble culture-language tie.

And Slobin would want to mitigate against universalism not by dint of a fixed cultural relativism but because of a pragmatic, momentary, speech- situation relativism. There are no studies of such a phenomenon, though think-aloud protocols TAPs; e. There are many studies that suggest different modes of reading: So it seems reasonable to posit a type of reading especially adapted to translation; in- deed, both de Beaugrande These notions also suggest that human minds are flexible enough to change mode and to see the world from different points of view, and also to know that others are doing so.

And they appear to avoid both a narrow interpretation of Sapir-Whorf relativism and too great an emphasis on universalism. If we were to project the notion of modified interlingual relativism on to the intralingual situation, the result would be to accept that different genres and text-types, while sharing universal features with other types of language, can be distinguished linguistically.

It is a view that is backed up by the observa- tions of critics: And indeed the very notion of translatorese or translationese suggests, usually in a pejorative sense, that translations have a language all of their own Gellerstam There is empirical evidence for this in studies which have shown that translation tends to obey certain norms irrespective of those that might obtain in source language and target language: French textbooks on stylistics do indeed exhort the writer to avoid repetition, but then so do German ones, e.

This intuitive sense of translation as a distinctive text-type has been borne out by corpus studies such as Kenny This suggests that a literary translation is, above all, consciously literary in that it is defamiliarized. Defamiliarization might thus serve not only to circumvent the differences between languages as Hyde sug- gested, but also to make literary translation more literary than non-translated literature.

In sum, then, we need to be aware that, though the consequences of linguistic and stylistic relativity could be that translation is impossible, most proponents of linguistic relativity such as Wierzbicka or Slobin are actually arguing for an interaction of universal and language-specific meanings in any particular language, a view we met in discussing Jakobson in 1.

Intralingually, different registers and genres also exhibit such interac- tion. Translationese can be viewed positively as a way of doing justice to the notion of translation as a particular type of text, especially for literary, overt translation. Many recent writers on cognitive stylistics have suggested a way out of this apparent dilemma: This is the view of Fabb The distinction between literary and non-literary texts, however it is formulated, is crucial to translators and translation researchers for an under- standing of the factors that influence translation.

For literary texts, says Kohlmayer This must surely be true of literature in general: This suggests that both translated literature and original literature do not depend for their effects wholly upon the expectations of a particular audience, and also that the contexts we create when reading are cognitive entities: As soon as the narrow formalist stylistic view of textual meaning, so deplored by Fowler, was expanded to take in the reader, and to consider pragmatic and cognitive elements, the question of the nature of literature again took on more importance, but as a way of reading rather than of writing.

But even the notion of fiction is not straight- forward. A reader looks for meaning in style when fulfilment of truth-conditions is not the main focus of the text, because the text is perceived as literary. This mind-changing quality of literature possibly conveys an evolutionary advantage, according to Hernandi and Dawkins So we have to translate in a way which does jus- tice to it Boase-Beier b. However the style signals the specifically literary nature of a text, the distinction between literary and non-literary texts has consequences for the translator.

For this book, one conse- quence of the question as to what constitutes a literary text is whether and to what extent the views of style here discussed can be applied to both literary and non-literary texts. One way in which the difference between literary and non-literary trans- lation can be seen is in terms of function. According to Nord it is possible to see literary translation as having a different skopos — or aim — from non-literary. Secondly, it is possible to say, as Gutt does Thirdly, it is possible to view literary and non-literary translation as different types of communication.

If poetic communication is different from non-poetic, as Pilkington That is, literary translation works not merely as a literary text, but as a special type of literary text, one whose relation to a source text plays a role in its interpreta- tion. In non-literary translation, the target text may be only covertly a translation in the sense described by House , and therefore not read as such.

Taking all these factors into account, there are four possible ways in which a translated text might be read: An example of a non-literary text which is to be read as a translation, iii above, would be a translation of a philosophical work which aimed to show as clearly as possible, by means of footnotes and words from the source text in brackets in the text, what the original said, or a literal version of a foreign advertisement, produced for internal use in an advertising company, and designed to show how the original achieved its effects.

And iv would include most examples of non-literary translation, where, as Gutt A tourist brochure for Rome translated into English or instructions for a laptop from China might be examples. These categories are not absolute. It should also have become clear that, though most translations will fall roughly within category i or category iv , there will still be a large number in the other two categories. Reading a text as non-literary does not mean that it can be seen as an unbiased statement of fact and reading it as a covert translation i.

However, at the opposite end of the scale, to read a text as both literary and overtly a translation does mean that the style could be ex- pected to reflect the views and ideology of both author and translator to quite a high degree. When I speak of literary translation in the course of this book I will generally be referring to overt literary translation, unless other- wise noted.

Similarly, most examples of non-literary translation will be assumed to be relatively covert. Much of the work of stylistic analysis will involve explaining how texts have the effects they have on the analyst in question or on others and why they are understood in the way they are, by uncovering views, stances and states of mind not immediately obvious without such analysis.

This applies to both literary and non-literary texts, and is helpful to the translator in both cases. Just as a reader can be stylistically aware in order both to be open to the full effects of a text, and less vulnerable to being unwittingly manipu- lated, so a translator who is stylistically aware is likely to be able more fully to appreciate both stylistic effects and the state of mind or view that informs them.

Studying style to ascertain such a state of mind is often of particular importance in non-literary texts such as the news, where it is easy, otherwise, to take as fact what is inevitably opinion. So let me state clearly my own position as regards the distinction between literary and non-literary translation, as it affects decisions taken by the translator. I am assuming throughout this book that there is a difference in the way we as readers, and therefore as translators, approach texts to be translated depending on whether we regard them as literary or not. We will be given a certain amount of context before beginning a translation, for example being told that the work in question is a novel, or an autobiography, or judging it to be such.

The role of style in this distinction is that it marks out a text as a poem, a piece of literary prose, a drama, and therefore, in all these cases, a fictional text. This has consequences for the way the translation is done and what we can say about it. The style of a text, then, is one source of evidence for the type of text it is. In addition, the style of a literary text involves the use of such figures as metaphor, ambiguity, and repeated patterns.

These figures may be present in any type of text but they will often be less frequent, less complex and less subtle in non-literary texts. Such figures or devices will interact with other principles governing the form of certain texts: The translation of such devices will generally demand greater care in a liter- ary text than in a non-literary text. Furthermore, style in literary texts produces poetic effects of the type to be discussed in Chapter 2 and Chapter 4, which involve the reader in a great deal of mental work but also provide for the experiencing of emotions, affective states or other emotional and cognitive effects, which vary from reader to reader.

One of the reasons for attempting to capture the style of any text, but especially of a literary text, is to provide the possibility for such effects upon the reader of the translated text. A non- literary text is not, in the first instance, usually assumed to be fictional. So, too, a translated non-literary text will usually be assumed in a very basic sense to be true.

This does not seem to be the view put forward in Gutt ; he says that a non-literary translation merely resembles another text, just like a literary one does, and so its author the translator does not vouch for its truth. But there is a difference between relocating a novel set in Berlin to Birmingham and translating statements about traffic in Berlin as though they applied to traffic in Birmingham. But these also are not absolutes. Fictional texts, especially memoirs, literary biography or verbatim theatre will have elements of non-fictionality.

This is a question I shall not address in detail in this book, but in fact there seems much potential for research on the effects of degrees of perceived fictionality upon the processes of translation. Theories of Reading and Relevance 2. The latter aspect will be taken up in section 3 of this chapter and section 3 of the next chapter. However, reading the style of the source text and recreating it in the target text are not two entirely separate things.

Scott , for example, feels that acts of reading and recreation are not temporally sequenced and wants to avoid any suggestion that reading produces a definitive, single interpretation, which could then in a subsequent stage be subjected to an act of translation. But translators themselves often seem to agree with Scott in not separating the process of reading from that of translating. Stock- well a has to some extent followed the deconstructionist views of critics like de Man in questioning the clear relationship of forms to mean- ings.

Current views recognize that Jakobson and early structuralist stylisticians as well as many early generative stylisticians had an overly formal approach based on a view of texts, and especially the details of their style, as encoding a message, which could be decoded and in translation re-encoded see e. One major change resulting from the perceived inadequacy of the code model has been the increasing contextualization of stylistics, which views as less straightforward the link between the world, the text, and the minds of those involved in its creation and reading.

If this is so, then what both cognitive stylistics or poetics, and its bordering discipline of cog- nitive linguistics must be telling us about finding meaning in a text has at least these two aspects: What these insights mean for the translation of style is to suggest that the process of reading a source text is not something which involves analysing all details of content and style until a meaning is got at and then stopped, and the uncontroversial meaning transferred through translation into another language or medium, if it is intralingual translation.

Views of the nature and importance of reading vary greatly, however, in the degree of open-endedness they envisage, and the role they assign to sty- listic features of the text. Put simply, the question for translation is this: Whatever answers we give to this question will apply equally to the readers of the target text. The answer a formalist critic such as Jakobson would have given would have been that, for any text, meaning was put there by the au- thor cf.

Hirsch ; Dowling These choices, which constituted the style, could be un- covered in the text by the reader. Through close stylistic analysis of the text, such as was also favoured by English close-reading critics like Richards e. The comfortable notion that meaning was put into a text by its author, to be decoded and re-encoded by the translator, makes the job of a translator, if not straightforward, at least clearly defined.

But though the New Critics shared with the formalist critics the view that meaning resides in the text, they did not necessarily equate it with the meaning intended by the author. It is not what the author intended, but what a text actually says, that makes interpretation possible. A writer like Fish to some extent opposes both these views: We may, as readers or listeners, not be able to access the intention of a writer or speaker, but we may assume that we can, while still being aware that we are merely making an assump- tion.

This appears, according to Gutt Gutt is arguing in his article as he did in his book; here , that translation is such a higher order act of communication. However, one could argue that all literary communi- cation is like this: This notion of assumption or pretence forms the very basis of cognitive stylistic approaches. Verdonk, in his survey of stylistics If, in stylistics and translation, we focus on the assumptions made by readers, we can consider both what guides these assumptions stylistic features, knowledge of literary conventions, knowledge of the world, etc.

This does not prevent us from ascribing them; Carston And with good reason. If, as archaeology suggests Mithen This cannot be how a translator views a source text. The sense of the intention behind a text, though, may be vague, and, if it is a literary text, will by definition be open- ended. In the next section 2. Then, in section 2. Diaz-Diocaretz, in the book mentioned above, bases her approach to translating on a combination of a Jakobsonian communication model with aspects of Reader-Response Theory.

Translation consists of decoding and encoding, performed consecutively But this view is also the least fruitful, as it denies the translator, as reader, much involvement in the process. Courtemanche is the author of the source text, the searing prose that of the translator, Patricia Claxton. These are open-ended, tend to be implied by stylistic nuances of the text, and embody the facility of texts to involve the reader cf. These meanings, one could argue, are both weakly implied but the meaning the reader assigns will depend on her or his background knowledge of the illness and its treat- ments, acceptance of ambiguity, and so on.

Weakly implied meanings are similar to the meanings Dowling Second-order implied mean- ings arise out of collocations, and various elements of style, and are the point of greatest interaction of the reader and, in our case, the translator , with the text, because they allow for her or his personal interpretation. For Benjamin, however, the interest lay less in find- ing such further meaning than in striving for it.

This is something I shall take up again in Chapter 4. So how do such weakly implied meanings engage the translator as reader? In this sense there is no radical practical difference here from the view of critics such as Dowling, who speak of a move from a more linguistically-based reading to a more personal one which must, however, follow a correct first- order reading The view that there are two levels of meaning splits the task of the translator effectively into two: Perception of these weakly implied meanings, including their ef- fects upon the reader, can hardly be separated from the act of recreation, and it is in the realm of such meanings that much of what stylistics has to say is of special relevance for translation.

Weakly implied meanings firmly place the burden of meaning-making on the reader or translator. But how do we judge the meanings thus made? Whether or not the distinction between these two levels of meaning is maintained, there are varying degrees to which the reader is seen as free. Views based on Reader- Response Theory, such as Iser , by contrast, tend to be more conservative. All have in common that, like the Freudian view of interpretation just men- tioned, reading is seen as a constructive activity Scholes There is no meaning without the reader In translation it makes sense to speak of an inferred author.

If there is a point in translating, it must be to communicate a source text, in the broadest sense, in another language and situation. Translators thus, as I have said elsewhere Boase-Beier a: This shaping or positioning of the reader can be done by direct address, by implied assumptions about the addressee, by clues to the attitude of speaker to addressee given by the style. Sometimes, the address may be direct: Or the reader may be invited into interaction with a question: Holmes suggests that the reader must give an answer, at least once the book has been read.

But the positioning of the reader might be more direct, even in a literary text. In this sense, the text manipulates its reader. We might refuse, when reading the Darling poem above, to take the position of a fellow- sufferer, and read the poem determinedly as addressed to someone else. So a reader- centred theory, by placing the onus of creating meaning on the translator in her or his relation to the source text, also to some extent takes away that responsibility as soon as the target text has been created.

As we saw above, an important aspect in Reader-Response Theory and most reader-orientated theories is the notion that there are aspects of meaning which are weakly implied, usually by the style of the text. This notion is also of central importance in Relevance Theory. But the notion of inference is not central.

In a view in which infer- ence is central, the semantics of languages, just as for Katz and Dowling , will still encode those aspects of meaning which the lin- guistics determines. These are explicatures Blakemore But meaning in its entirety is by nature underdetermined by semantics, and it is pragmatics, rather than semantics, which helps interpret whatever the explicatures do not say. Such further interpretation is by inference rather than decoding, and depends upon implicatures. There is an important differ- ence between implications and implicatures. Implication is in the text, but an implicature is attributed to a speaker: Relevance Theory thus takes for granted that we assume there is a speaker who has intentions.

Style is particularly important because it tends to carry the attitude of the speaker to what is said Boase-Beier b , and allow other implicatures which enable pragmatic inferences about situation, mental state and so on, to be made. Especially literary texts would be expected to carry a large number of such weak implicatures. But this is also true to some extent of non-literary texts. The text will thus, while leaving the translator free to construct weakly implied meanings according to her or his own pragmatic context, neverthe- less exert some sort of cognitive manipulation.

But much of the work done in Relevance Theory and other cognitive pragmatic views of translation sees the forces exerted by the text in less negative terms than are suggested by talking of manipulation. These clues lie in the style because style is how rather than what is said Wales In this sense the intended and interpreted meanings are the same. If meanings are thus open, then to some extent every reading is poten- tially a misreading see de Man ; Eco ; Bloom But this is not a particular problem for Relevance Theory as it has no reason to distin- guish between readings and misreadings.

For translation, a Relevance-Theory view will not need to distinguish between correct and incorrect translations, and it will not need to spend time deciding what is meant by equivalence: Some work linking Relevance Theory with translation such as Fawcett It is used, for example, by Lyall Watson to explain animal behaviour: But if this seems too utilitarian a view to be of much use in understanding literary communication, even if it makes sense for, say, advertising or the speeches of politicians, it should be remembered that, as MacKenzie But maximum relevance is something we cognitively strive for by seeking contexts in which it can be achieved MacKenzie Maximum relevance involves getting the greatest possible effects from what is heard or read.

In focusing on the difficulties a text may pose to a reader, Pilkington is here echoing the work both of Benjamin e. The result of this is that the reader searches for significance. There are examples of such instances in Chapter 4 and 5, but as a brief illustration, here is a passage from a poem by R. It is not possible to read these few lines without spending a great deal of time on constructing linguistic, philosophical and acoustic contexts for their interpretations.

The notion of relevance as maximization is thus not new; and the notion of optimal relevance is only interesting for non-literary translation. In the following section we will look at what this has meant in concrete terms for translators and what it could potentially mean. Gutt made a number of suggestions about how translation could be explained using Relevance Theory. The most important of these are: In English-speaking countries comparatively little work has been done with Relevance Theory and translation. The latter, in particular, dis- cusses the difference between notions such as direct and indirect translation, but does not consider how this distinction affects the translation of style in very great detail.

In Spain, on the other hand, there are more studies that directly apply a Relevance-Theory approach, such as Dahlgren , Dahlgren , Edwards As I suggested in the previous section, it may be the focus on relevance itself which has rendered the approach less useful than it might be for translation. Taking relevance as given, here are some insights from Relevance Theory and cognitive pragmatics more gener- ally the first four are adapted from Boase-Beier a which might be useful for studying what happens to style when we translate: This suggests that in many cases a translator will need to start with the style, not the content of a text.

As an example, consider the following lines, from the poet Ernst Meister A full explanation of how this poem has been read and translated is in Chapter 5 see also Boase-Beier a , but it is enough here to note that the final stanza, which these three lines make up, is seen as introducing the way the poet might see himself, his usefulness, his afterlife. The translator can exercise the freedom to include it or not, or include some other clue to the cognitive state the poem is seen to suggest. But this is true of the original, too, because it is the way poetry works: And the distinction is a question of degree, rather than an absolute opposition.

One translation may be more direct pay more attention to the style than another, but still both may attempt to give more than just sub- stance. Such translations are largely indirect, and could therefore be adjudged unsuccessful as examples of literary translation. As Erkazanci unpublished points out, both domesticating and for- eignizing translation practices could in fact be seen as instances of direct translation, because both render the style of a text in one way to fit target expectations or another to violate target expectations , but in neither case is style ignored.

Assuming that the text will work subject to relevance not because the author obeys the relevance con- straint consciously but simply because this is the way communication works then the more literary the text is in the sense given in 1. Following the assumption of maximal rather than optimal relevance in- volves accepting that the input to the reading of a text may be enormous. And if the output is limit- less, as in the reading of such texts it might be, then we would expect the effort to be correspondingly great.

It also suggests that Venuti So what is the reward of reading for maximum relevance? As will be discussed in Chapter 4, cognition as used in cognitive stylistics is not meant in this narrow sense; because the body, especially in metaphor theory e. As the example from R. Thomas given in the previous section sug- gests, Relevance Theory would not bemoan the impossibility of locating definite meaning, but would celebrate it cf. In this par- ticular case, it is linked directly to the need for the reader to explore the religious and philosophical possibilities the poem gives rise to.

I would simply have more gaps to fill and fewer clues and guidelines to shape the process. In fact, this is what frequently happens, when translators translate out of languages they do not speak. It is also the way we judge translation, especially when we cannot fully appre- ciate the nuances of the source text. In these cases, the easy part to judge is primary or utterance meaning, and this is frequently the basis for evaluations of translation, especially within a language-learning situation or in reviews. Style will be less important in a non-literary text and such texts, by their nature, will not encourage the reader to maximize relevance.

But it is not likely that it expresses anything else and the reader is unlikely to try and get further effects from it. And yet we should be aware that the experiencing of emotion is in part also precognitive. According to Crisp This suggests that even super- ficial reading may trigger emotions, which are then heightened or prolonged when cognition is exercised, and when our thought and beliefs are exam- ined, as in literature. More will be said on cognitive effects and cognitive views of style in Chapter 4.

For the moment, we can note that a translator reading a source text as literary will read it from the point of view of style as i an expression of choices attributable to the speaker author, character, narrator and ii a set of points at which the reader can engage with the text, for maximum cognitive effect.

But before that, now that we have considered some views of how a translator understands the source text and its style, I want to look, in Chapter 3, at what those assumptions about the style might mean and how they might relate to what the translator does in creating a target text. What this assumption then means in practice for the actual translation may differ between translators and according to situation, translation aims, and approach.

This view takes for granted that such an intention can be discovered, though, as we have seen, it is an assumption that is fraught with difficulty. At a recent workshop on Contrary to what Verdonk appears to suggest, not all choice can be seen as consciously motivated; it is one of the purposes of both Critical Discourse Analysis and stylistic analysis to uncover unconscious choice, whose moti- vation may not have been at all apparent to the writer.

This point is also made by Baker Yet it is implicit in the critical linguistic approach of someone like Fowler that many social and historical influences are so deeply embedded in the way we think and feel that it is not always possible to separate conscious from unconscious choice see also Milic Are we to say this connotation is consciously or unconsciously motivated in the original poem, or is put there by the reader? If, as MacKenzie Choice, whether seen as more or less restricted, has always been a cen- tral issue for stylistics.

Distinctiveness arises because of choice exercised by a writer. Because choice can be exercised in the realm of the second-order meanings we met in Chapter 2, rather than in those meanings determined by lexis or syntax, style will affect such second-order meanings. For a translator, style is possi- bly the least contentious area of translational freedom. The first introduces meaning that is not merely a stylistic variation from the sense of the original, and would generally not be considered a translation of the phrase.

Translation of «Arschkriecherin» into 25 languages

The second, however, is close in meaning to the original. But it is related by stylistic as opposed to lexical-semantic variation to several other possibilities: Stylistically, a , b and e are similar; c is different in that it intro- duces a dialect word; d uses alliteration. However, it is not so simple. Firstly, I wanted both to suggest something of the colloquial nature of the original text, a diary even though at this particular point the original was not colloquial: But, secondly, I also wanted to echo a possible German alternative to the original: There was also a third, more personal reason, too: But the editors of the sample did not like it, and changed it to e.

What this example shows is that the style we choose as translators is subject to all manner of constraints and influences, some of which the trans- lator may only be dimly aware of. In the rest of this section I will consider the sources of such constraints and influences before moving on, in 3. Style, then, is seen in most stylistic approaches to texts as a question of sometimes unconscious choice. But it is not just choice of words or struc- tures or sounds.

According to Fowler, the concept of style goes far beyond this: As will have become clear, this is not the view taken in this book. Fowler was right, though, in suggesting that style is not just a question of different ways of saying the same thing: The concept of choice has a moral inflection: This broader, moral sense of style as reflection of mind and character is also found in linguistic views which see style, through its reflections of choice, as an indication of personality.

But universalism is important for translation. For a choice is made from those structures the mind universally makes avail- able; the basis of all linguistics is exactly this interaction between universal and individual, as indeed it is the main concern of translation and its theories. In Boase-Beier a I distinguished between the world-view of the speaker or narrator or inferred author and its linguistic expression. I will come back to the issue of mind style in the next chapter, which focuses on this and other aspects of cognitive approaches to style and translation.

I am making the assumption that, by attempting to reconstruct the style of a text, the translator is attempting to reconstruct states of mind and thought processes, always with the awareness that individual states of mind are af- fected by social and cultural influences. That is, they aim to document how the original text worked.

Such translations would not necessarily echo the style of the original: Glosses such as are given for examples in this book are also documentary translations, as their aim is to illuminate the source text, but they would not usually be considered to be literary transla- tions. Documentary translations are therefore not necessarily literary translations, but literary translations are very often documentary: Nord sug- gests that this has in fact become the norm A particular choice of words by a translator may indeed aim for a documentary effect, for exam- ple by reproducing aspects of source-text style in a way which goes beyond merely reflecting the general use of stylistic principles.

But it is more difficult to apply such descriptions to a complete work. In this trans- lation by Richard Dove More than this, we could say that literary translation achieves its instrumental function to be read as a literary translation by being documentary because this is what a literary translation does. As Kyritsi in an as yet unpublished dissertation has shown, translations of such stories, by consciously making the material conform to what is regarded as suitable for children at a particular time, can vary quite radically from the source text.

In other translations such as the King James Version of the Bible , which not everyone would regard as a literary translation, the purpose may also be an important determining factor. They are not merely domesticating, but they tend to be read as originals. What can be seen from discussions of the aim of translation, and the issue of documentary versus instrumental, and the relationship of both to literary versus non-literary translation, is that no clear distinctions can be drawn with respect to the attempt to recreate style.

What can be said on balance is that: The fourth point can be seen as support for the view that literary translation should be considered a unique type of writing within the whole range of literary writing, a view discussed in Section 1. The fact that literary trans- lation can only be instrumental if documentary also points to the main reason for its distinction from other types of translation: In other words, if the intertextual coherence of the source text, which is the basis of its stylistic effect, is respected, the target text will, to the extent that it documents such effects, also work instrumentally.

House distin- guishes overt translation from covert. Nord speaks of documentary translation, which shows us the source text more clearly, and instrumental, which functions as communication be- tween source-text author and target-text reader. None of these distinctions is exactly the same as any of the others because they focus to varying degrees on function and form and on the source text or the target text. And all of these distinctions are best seen as scalar rather than polar opposites: To add to, or possibly to confuse, this picture, I have suggested in the previous section that there is a distinction between literary and non-literary translation in that literary translation achieves its function — to work as a translated literary text — by virtue of being documentary.

These distinctions are important for consid- ering the translation of style because they all touch, to a greater or lesser degree, on three aspects of the style of a text: Direct translation will thus be more difficult for the reader to process than indirect, but it will provide more cognitive or emotional effects, and will therefore be more rewarding.

But they will not usually be made so difficult that the reader is in danger of giving up. Thomas poem discussed in 2. Any attempt to document such syntactic sophistication would be likely to defeat the reader, if not the translator. None of these writers suggest that it is actual linguistic resemblance, or formal equiva- lence, as in the first example from Dove given above, which is meant.

This is why even direct translation remains an example of interpretive use: In this sense one can argue, as I did at the end of the previous section, that a documentary translation will be instrumental when- ever it preserves relationships between meanings and the potential for effects, rather than forms. In all these senses they are taken by the translator as implicatures meanings implied by the text because assumed to be put there by the inferred author rather than implications whatever a reader might take the text to mean beyond what is explicit.

If, for example, a translator reads an original dramatic dialogue in which a female speaker says: The stylistic con- straints on this sort of translation would therefore include those that apply to texts of the appropriate genre in the target language, or the clues would have a very different value. Po- etry translation might be expected to allow more latitude with respect to such norms, partly because translated poetry is more likely to be experimen- tal than the novel without thereby seeming purely documentary.

On the other hand, novel translations which bear the sort of resemblance to the foreign source text noted especially in the example from Dove given above, are likely to be seen simply as poor translations. This applies to passages like the following, taken from an English translation of a French crime novel: Readers are unlikely to interpret such expressions as communicative clues. These moves, using a theory of translation as rational action such as is also used by Wilss , reflect choices among a number of alternatives given by the possibilities of render- ing in the target language the meanings contained in the source text.

This is a process familiar to all translators who set up a data-base for their translation. It might, for example, be a clue to a view that takes the alliterative link between the vari- ous words in the poem as representing association by name rather than by function and, in a wider sense, a philosophy which arises from language, rather than from the objects the language refers to.

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And, he suggests, if preserving style would be seen by a majority of readers to produce an awkward target text then most translators will aim to please the majority of the audience. This presupposi- tion is behind the view that the translator aims to achieve similarity of stylistic effect between target text and source text Newmark From the point of view of Reader-Response Theory, this approach does not make much sense, because the burden is on the reader to construct a reading, albeit under the guidance of the text Iser , and so there is no way of guaranteeing stylistic effect as indeed Newmark points out and not necessarily any desire on the part of the writer including the translator to do so.

Most of the examples discussed in Chapter 5 assume that what makes a rendering of a text in another language a translation is the similarity of cognitive effect it makes possible, as judged by the translator. Knowledge of style is a tool which aids in both interpreting the style of the source text and assessing the way style works in the target text. Theory as a tool for practice will be the subject of Chapter 5. Some of these were considered in the previous section. This point was touched on in 2.

But to some degree all studies of the style of translated texts will relate this vis- ible presence of the translator to the style of the original text. Views which focus most clearly on the style of the target text in its own right are often found within theories of translation reception such as have been formulated especially in the framework of polysystem theory e. Even- Zohar ;Toury ; A study like this assumes that it is generally clear what translation is aiming for, namely the preservation of stylistic nuances of the original but always under the assumption that it is clear what is the equivalent of a par- ticular structure in a given context.

It can thus consider style and stylistic effects as though they were purely linguistic phenomena in a narrow sense, rather than clues to meaning, and did not in any important way reflect either the ideological choices of the original author or the choices made by the translator. In principle there is no reason why such analyses should not be performed on translated texts. Overall, stylistic analyses of translated texts have in general not been numerous as yet. But it could be argued that exactly in the area of style the transla- tor does have a great deal of freedom to invent.

This wish was certainly in part dictated by the need to produce a coherent anthology, but it could equally be argued that translating an anthology is a way of pro- curing stylistic freedom. This study both compares target texts and com- pares each with the source text, discovering that one translator keeps closer to the source text than the other, and that the difference in style between the two translators was especially noticeable in the narrative, as opposed to the translation of direct speech.

In Boase-Beier a two translations of the same poem are considered and stylistic differences seen as evidence for different interpreta- tions on the part of the two translators of the cognitive state embodied in the text. The point is made in that article that a translated text is often felt by translators to be co-authored; the explanation given in the article is of a knowl- edge basis and world view influenced by that of the original. He shows that a particular group of translators might have a par- ticular approach to translating and that this, too, can be traced in the style of several target texts when compared.

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Besides looking for the visible presence of the translator in a target text, either more or less explicitly in interaction with the presence of the original author, stylistic studies of translated texts may provide evidence for the no- tion mentioned in 1. In Chapter 5, I suggest that trans- lated literature, and especially translated poetry, by requiring more work on the part of the reader to create a context, can also intensify poetic elements in the source text.

In this sense, stylistic study of translated texts might be expected to find that such texts possess literariness to a high degree. This is a very important point, and it applies to some degree to all stylistics: But it is taking stylistic study one stage fur- ther to assess the influences on that state of mind, and at this stage the study becomes far more speculative.

One of the difficulties of Critical Discourse Analysis and also of all translation studies which aim to suggest such influ- ences on the translation e. Boase-Beier a is their very speculative nature. Perhaps it is partly the precariousness of such undertakings which renders the appeal of the universal and its assumed cognitive and, ultimately, corporeal basis in studies such as Tabakowska so strong.

He quotes Hilaire Belloc as saying that there should be no foreignizing or we shall lose our tradition of great writing The converse, a domesticating translation, aims not to tax the reader by unfamiliarity. In the sense of Relevance Theory, it requires minimal processing and the effects it can achieve will be only those of a text that might as well never have been foreign. And as Venuti However, this is not to say that foreignizing is never mimetic. Foreignizing can also be seen, and is seen by Venuti, as a strategy which keeps alive an awareness of difference.

For Spivak, it is rhetoricity which subverts grammar much as for a relevance theorist it is implicature which goes be- yond and can subvert as in irony utterance meaning. Such evidence can vary from the reference to auctions in the title of the scientific article mentioned in 2. Corpus studies such as those mentioned by Winters or Baker will allow us to go some way towards reconstructing and comparing choices. It is to this that we turn in the next chapter. Cognitive Stylistics and Translation 4.

My evidence for this was of three types: The cognitive trend could be seen at work in the rise of the psycho- logical crime novel e. Though these views and approaches are obviously very different, they can be re- garded as part of a general shift of focus from the observation of behaviour to speculation about the cause of that behaviour in the mind Graham As some of the above examples show, this is not the case. Others suggest that the direction of influence may be reversed: But for Stockwell the primary focus of cognitive poetics which I would regard as virtually synonymous with cognitive stylistics is neither the application of insights from cognitive linguistics to literature nor from literature to the mind, but the bigger questions about the nature of literature itself a: If one extends these questions to include translation studies, the value of cognitive approaches might be expected to lie in their potential to help us understand issues about literary comprehension, universality, and the differ- ence between literary and non-literary texts.

Emmot, how- ever, sounds a note of caution: A Skeleton Plays Violin: Narratives Unsettled argues by way of close readings of three very different German-language writers that only if we conceive of narrativity unburdened by plot can we properly account for radical forms of digression. They Have All Been Healed: The Swiss writer Robert Walser is now recognized as one of the most important European authors of the modernist period, having garnered high praise from such prominent voices as Susan Sontag, W.

A Companion will be of interest both to established scholars and to those coming to Walser for the first time. How We Learn Where We Live opens new avenues into thinking about one of the most provocative writers of the twentieth century, Thomas Bernhard. She demonstrates that both literature and architecture are implicated in the concept of Bildung. His writings insist that learning has always been a life-long process that is helped—or hindered—by the particular buildings in which Bildung occurs.

Crossing the Sierra de Gredos: Recently published by academic presses. Results by Library of Congress Code. Books near "Two Plays of Weimar Germany: Empowered by their close bond, they espoused vehemently anti-Nazi views in a Europe swept up in fascism and were openly, even defiantly, gay in an age of secrecy and repression. And, as Andrea Weiss reveals in this dual biography, their story offers a fascinating view of the literary and intellectual life, political turmoil, and shifting sexual mores of their times. In the Shadow of the Magic Mountain begins with an account of the make-believe world the Manns created together as children—an early sign of their talents as well as the intensity of their relationship.

Weiss documents the lifelong artistic collaboration that followed, showing how, as the Nazis took power, Erika and Klaus infused their work with a shared sense of political commitment. Auden, whom Erika married in Modernism and Masculinity argues that a crisis of masculinity among European writers and artists played a key role in the modernist revolution. Gerald Izenberg revises the notion that the feminine provided a premodern refuge for artists critical of individualism and materialism. Industrialization and the growing power of the market inspired novelist Thomas Mann, playwright Frank Wedelind, and painter Wassily Kandinsky to feel the problematic character of their own masculinity.

As a result, these artists each came to identify creativity, transcendence, and freedom with the feminine. But their critique of masculinity created enormous challenges: How could they appropriate a feminine aesthetic while retaining their own masculine idenitites? How did appropiating the feminine affect their personal relationships or their political views? Modernism and Masculinity seeks to answer these questions. In this absorbing combination of biography and formal critique, Izenberg reconsiders the works of Mann, Wedekind, Kandinsky and semonstrates how the cirses of masculinity they endure are found not just within the images and forms of their art, but in the distinct and very personal impulses that inspired it.

She is always pushing to expose the limits of language and explore its experimental potential, seeking a re-ordering of the world through the re-ordering of words. Offering a perspective on modern society and intellectual life, they are concerned with the crisis of modern culture as it manifests itself in science and mathematics, capitalism and nationalism, the changing roles of women and writers, and more. Writing to find his way in a world where moral systems everywhere were seemingly in decay, Musil strives to reconcile the ongoing conflict between functional relativism and the passionate search for ethical values.

Robert Musil was born in and died in He has a range and a striking capacity every bit as great as that of Mann, Joyce, or Beckett. This innovative study of the works of Robert Musil opens a new window on the history of modern identity in western culture. Prior to its destruction in , the Austro-Hungarian Empire had ruled over a vast array of nationalities and, in the course of its demise as well as after, Austria was beset by nationalism, racism, and other forms of identity politics that ultimately led to the triumph of Nazism.

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Whereas the central plot portrays a Viennese elite that in attempts to restore social cohesion by gathering popular support for the cultural essence of the empire, the protagonist discovers that he lacks essence altogether and finds himself attracted by monsters, criminals, and revolutionary figures that reject the social order. Subject Without Nation presents a new interpretation of Viennese modernity and uncovers the historical foundations of poststructural and postcolonial reconceptualizations of human subjectivity.

In a pluralistic society without absolute standards of judgment, how can an individual live a moral life? This is the question Robert Musil , an Austrian-born engineer and mathematician turned writer, asked in essays, plays, and fiction that grapple with the moral ambivalence of modern life. Though unfinished, his monumental novel of Vienna in the febrile days before World War I, The Man without Qualities, is identified by German scholars as the most important literary work of the twentieth century.

In a fresh examination of his essays, notebooks, and fiction, Patrizia McBride reconstructs Musil's understanding of ethics as a realm of experience that eludes language and thought. After situating Musil's work within its contemporary cultural-philosophical horizon, as well as the historical background of rising National Socialism, McBride shows how the writer's notion of ethics as a void can be understood as a coherent and innovative response to the crises haunting Europe after World War I.

She explores how Musil rejected the outdated, rationalistic morality of humanism, while simultaneously critiquing the irrationalism of contemporary art movements, including symbolism, impressionism, and expressionism. Her work reveals Musil's remarkable relevance today-particularly those aspects of his thought that made him unfashionable in his own time: The Duino Elegies are the culmination of the development of Rilke's poetry. A summary of his spiritual troubles, perhaps no volume of poems in a European language has made so dramatic and sustained an impact on English-speaking readers in this century.

This bilingual edition provides English-speaking readers with access to a critical work in the development of the most significant figure in twentieth-century German poetry. Kidder's delicately nuanced translation preserves Rilke's uncomplicated and melodic flow, his rhythm, and, where possible, his rhyme while remaining true to content. Rilke penned The Book of Hours between and in three parts. Readers and experts alike consider the collection among Rilke's most important and enduring works. This lively and engrossing biography offers much of interest to Rilke's growing body of followers.

In , Rainer Maria Rilke wrote "Requiem for a Friend" in memory of Paula Modersohn-Becker, the German painter who had profoundly affected him and who had died a year earlier. Although a great modern painter, Modersohn-Becker is remembered primarily as she is portrayed in Rilke's poem.

Dear Friend looks at the relationship of two great artists whose often-strained friendship was extraordinary for both. German writer, critic, and theorist Paul Scheerbart — died nearly a century ago, but his influence is still being felt today. Considered by some a mad eccentric and by others a visionary political thinker in his own time, he is now experiencing a revival thanks to a new generation of scholars who are rightfully situating him in the modernist pantheon.

The Story of an Invention. The latter, written in the guise of a scientific work complete with technical diagrams , was taken as such when first published but in reality is a fiction—albeit one with an important message. Paul Scheerbart — was a visionary German novelist, theorist, poet, and artist who made a lasting impression on such icons of modernism as Walter Benjamin, Bruno Taut, and Walter Gropius.

In , Scheerbart published The Light Club of Batavia , a Novelle about the formation of a club dedicated to building a spa for bathing—not in water, but in light—at the bottom of an abandoned mineshaft. Translated here into English for the first time, this rare story serves as a point of departure for Josiah McElheny, who, with an esteemed group of collaborators, offers a fascinating array of responses to this enigmatic work. Joseph, as well as translations of original texts by and about Scheerbart.

A unique response by one visionary artist to another, The Light Club is an unforgettable examination of what it might mean to see radical potential in absolute illumination. The plays of Arthur Schnitzler have in recent years come to be recognized as masterpieces of modernism. This collection presents the most accurate translations available of Schnitzler's works, passing up opportunities to paraphrase and instead flushing out vivid detail and psychological insight by combining a sensitive interpretation of the playwright's sometimes ironic, sometimes farcical, temperament with a faithful re-creation of dialogue.

There are also additional scenes and an alternate ending to Anatol that are seldom found in translation or even in German versions of the play. With conscientious attention to the rhythms of speech and respect for the completeness of the works, these translations offer new possibilities for bringing Schnitzler's works to the contemporary stage and new insights for anyone interested in drama, literature, or history. Turn-of-the-century Vienna was the scene of tremendous social and artistic upheaval.

Arthur Schnitzler's novel The Road to the Open brilliantly captures the complex world of Freud, Mahler, Strauss, and Klimt, dealing masterfully with the basic issues of Austian anti-Semitism, the Viennese intellectual community, post-Wagnerian music, and the psychology of Vienna's middle class. Two Plays of Weimar Germany offers new translations, by the renowned theater scholar and translator Laurence Senelick, of popular works by the playwright Ferdinand Bruckner: Though his fame was later eclipsed by peers such as Bertolt Brecht, Bruckner was the celebrity dramatist of his time, and a new generation of readers is discovering his groundbreaking plays known for their strong cultural critique and unflinching portrayals of social ills, outcasts, and misfits.

Youth Is a Sickness explores the lives of Germany's "lost generation," those who grew up during and after the cataclysm of the First World War, devoid of hope and ideals, lost in a haze of sex and drugs. Criminals traces several court cases about a failed double suicide, theft, abortion, and homosexual blackmail, controversial topics for the audience of its time and even today.

Its innovative staging and interwoven storylines illuminate the imposed social tensions and legal injustice faced by the characters. In this expert translation, readers can see Bruckner as a public intellectual, a man committed to commenting on the fate of Germany; humane values; and the past, present, and future in his work.

With an introduction by the translator, this volume will be the definitive version for readers, actors, playwrights, and scholars. The distinctive tone of Trakl's work-especially admired by his patron Ludwig Wittgenstein-is autumnal and melancholy. Trakl was writing at a time of spiritual and social disintegration on the eve of the First World War, when personal values and perceptions tended to be subsumed in a more generalized anguish and exaltation.

Neo-romantic, early modernist, his rich, vitally sensuous poetry can be seen to mark the transition from impressionism to expressionism, but at the same time transcends such categories. Trakl's poetry has previously only been available in English in short selections or in anthologies. This bilingual edition, the most comprehensive to date, gives readers the chance to get to know Trakl's work more fully than ever before.

The work here ranges widely, from his haunting prose pieces to his darkly beautiful poems documenting the first bloody weeks of World War I on the Eastern Front. A Skeleton Plays Violin should not be missed. In perhaps the most provocative reading to date of the Swiss German modernist Robert Walser, Walter Benjamin asserted that Walser's figures "have all been healed. At the same time, Jan Plug reads Walser alongside his most compelling readers, tracing how not only Benjamin but also Giorgio Agamben, W.

Sebald, and the Brothers Quay complicate, clarify, and enact that same process of healing in their own work. Working out the theological implications of Walser's work and of the tradition to which he gives rise, Plug at once recasts one of the major authors of the twentieth century and articulates a new conception of healing and salvation. The three older men have handcuffed the ex-Nazi to the bed and are interrogating and torturing him in an attempt to get him to admit to his war crimes.

Becker keenly shows the tension between members of the Holocaust generation and their children, who are unable to understand the complexity of that nightmarish era of human history. The East German writer has devised something between story and allegory to evoke the cold generational millennium that separates a father, with his concentration-camp memories, from a son, adrift in a society with no memories whatsoever.

Becker, writing simply and clearly in an unstrained narrative, speaks with the voice of knowledge, and we do well to listen to him. Jurek Becker, the author of the first comic novel on the Holocaust, Jacob the Liar , and other highly acclaimed works, was one of West Germany's most famous exiles from the GDR. In the first biography of this fascinating figure, Sander Gilman tells the story of Becker's life in five worlds: Gilman was close friends with Becker for nearly thirty years, and his biography is based on unprecedented access to both the man and his papers.

As Gilman reveals, Becker's story encapsulates the fractured experience of life in twentieth-century Europe, a time and place in which political systems and national borders were constantly in flux. The life of Becker, we learn, was one of great literary achievement and notoriety, but it was also one of profound cultural dislocation.

An important theme in the book is Becker's struggle with his Jewishness, an identity he repressed in socialist East Germany, but embraced after reunification, when he found himself at the center of Jewish culture and literature. Sander Gilman's story of Jurek Becker is biography of the highest order, a portrait of an extraordinarily gifted artist whose hope and courage are manifested in his legacy as one of the greatest German writers of the past century.