Human and Environmental Impacts to the Burrowing Owl in the Okanagan

Two captive breeding facilities were constructed Kamloops and Vancouver. Since , owls have been released into the wild. These in turn have successfully fledged thirty young. Phase 1 of the project consisted of identifying the potentially important factor s that would improve the probabilities of a successful reintroduction. The successive reintroductions of burrowing owls since has provided valuable information regardless of their independent successes, since ecological information on this species in B.

A number of release and monitoring approaches have been taken, and knowledge gained in each of those years has been applied to subsequent releases. In essence, this exercise is a continuous learning process with improvements made each year to maximize the probabilities of survival and reproduction of released owls.

Objectives The overall objective of the burrowing owl reintroduction program is to reestablish populations of burrowing owls in three geographical locations within the Thompson-Nicola Region in accordance with the mandate of the B. The particular goal of the first phase was to discern potentially significant factors that would guide future management strategies. Assess the characteristics of grassland habitats in present and future release sites in terms of their potential to support breeding populations of burrowing owls; Monitor movements and behavior patterns of burrowing owls; Increase the number of existing burrows and enhance historical burrowing owl habitats where possible; Determine the most appropriate release method that will increase reproductive output and minimize predation-associated mortality; and, Increase public awareness and educate local resource users of matters concerning the burrowing owl.

Back to Owl Main Page Acknowldgements. Government Ministry of Environment. Ministry of Environment Thompson Region Home. Biophysical characteristics of the Region. Water Act section 9 "Notifications". Case Study - Burrowing Owl. Case Study - Burrowing Owl An Assessment of the Burrowing Owl Speotyto cunicularia Reintroduction in the Thompson-Nicola Region of British Columbia Abstract Almost all endangered species are threatened because their ecological needs are affected negatively by human interference.

Western North America was historically covered by Burrowing Owls are summer residents in the northern portions of their breeding range, including Canada. Some individuals released in British Columbia in captive-breeding reintroduction programs do not migrate, but this is likely an artifact of captive-breeding and release as yearlings. Burrowing Owls arrive on their prairie breeding grounds in April and May, lay an average of nine eggs, typically fledge three to five young, and then begin fall migration in late August or September Wellicome ; Wellicome ; Todd et al.

Most pairs are monogamous Wellicome , although polygyny is occasionally reported Haug Male owls typically defend a nest site and display for prospecting females Poulin et al. Both sexes may renovate and maintain the nest burrow, but only females incubate eggs and brood young. Males provision the female with food during the day incubation period and while nestlings are brooded Poulin ; Poulin et al. The nestling period lasts approximately 44 days Landry , after which time juveniles disperse to nearby satellite burrows Green ; Todd a.

Normally only a single brood is raised but a pair may re-nest if the first clutch is lost early in the season Poulin et al. Second broods have been recorded in Arizona and one female Burrowing Owl nested twice in the same year, , in Arizona and Saskatchewan Holroyd et al. Juvenile apparent survival rates are lower, but are more difficult to estimate due to the lower site-fidelity of juvenile owls De Smet ; Wellicome et al.

De Smet measured a 3. Clearly, these return rates underestimate survival rates, given that many adults and juveniles typically disperse from breeding and natal areas see Dispersal and Migration below. The lack of an accurate measure of adult and juvenile survival rates hampers attempts to accurately predict local population viability McDonald et al. Productivity of Burrowing Owls is highly variable in Canada.

Juvenile mortality after fledging apparently varies with predation pressure and local food availability. In Saskatchewan, Todd et al. In addition, juvenile mortality tended to be higher in relatively fragmented habitat patches Todd b , suggesting that habitat fragmentation may be negatively affecting juvenile survival in Great Plains habitats see also Clayton and Schmutz Generation time is approximately years. On the Canadian prairies, voles Microtus spp. During summer, Burrowing Owls typically forage during the day around their nest sites for insects, but feed on small mammals in nearby grasslands at night Schmutz et al.

A similar ratio of insects to mammals is consumed during the winter in Mexico Valdez Gomez et al. The degree to which adult and juvenile Burrowing Owls show fidelity to breeding and natal sites is difficult to assess, as re-sightings of banded birds within finite study areas may underestimate dispersal. However, information from stable isotope studies suggests significant dispersal and genetic exchange among neighbouring populations Duxbury In Alberta, observations of individually marked returning juveniles showed that nests were established m to 30 km from their natal sites, with females moving farther than males J.

Schmutz, cited in Poulin et al. Natal dispersal on the Regina Plain ranged from 0 to km Wellicome et al. De Smet reported that returning juveniles nested 1 to 77 km from their natal sites in Manitoba. Between-year movements of adults were significantly lower. Adult males in Manitoba moved an average of 3.

However, the maximum dispersal distance for both juveniles and adults increases with the area of the study sites, indicating that true maxima are even larger than above. Duxbury estimated average annual dispersal at km with a maximum of 3, km based on stable isotope analysis. Burrowing Owls from the Canadian prairies migrate directly south through the Great Plains and winter from south Texas to central Mexico Holroyd et al. Burrowing Owls from Alberta and Saskatchewan carrying satellite transmitters wintered across central Mexico from Veracruz to Baja Holroyd and Trefry a,c.

Finally, stable isotope analysis of feathers from wintering owls in central Mexico shows some of these owls were in prairie Canada the previous summer Duxbury Aside from anecdotal observations of Burrowing Owls being harassed by songbirds e. Adult and juvenile Burrowing Owls are taken by a wide range of predators, with raptors and badgers being the most common Wellicome et al.

Predation has been cited as a significant source of mortality in local populations. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, avian predation accounted for almost half of all mortality of juvenile owls between the fledging and migration periods Clayton ; Todd a,b. Badgers have been noted as frequent predators of Burrowing Owls in Saskatchewan Wellicome et al. Finally, near human habitations, domestic cats and dogs are known to prey on eggs and young Haug ; Millsap and Bear ; Sleno No quantitative sampling has been undertaken to determine the current number of Burrowing Owls in Canada.

Case Study - Burrowing Owl

In prairie Canada, the owls are too thinly dispersed to be effectively surveyed. Previous COSEWIC status reports have given population estimates of Burrowing Owls, but they were also not based on quantitative sampling, and Recovery Team members expressed concerns that they did not reflect the more rapid declines shown by systematic localized surveys. Nevertheless, in the absence of more quantitative data, the estimated population cited in the report was used as a baseline for estimating the current population, factoring in the rate of decline in areas that have received monitoring over the past decade.

Estimates of Burrowing Owl population trends for the breeding season come from a variety of sources including: Given the differences in methodology, scale, and observer effort among these surveys, the three survey types have different strengths and weaknesses. While the BBS and landowner surveys give results on the broadest scales, they are also more prone to sampling error.

Dedicated Burrowing Owl surveys done by biologists may give more accurate results, but are necessarily restricted to much smaller areas. Taken together, however, these surveys likely provide a relatively robust representation of the long-term population size and trends of Burrowing Owls in Canada. CBCs are done throughout North America and are one-day, fixed-radius surveys conducted each year between mid-December and early January. The estimate likely underestimated the total Canadian population, as relatively large areas of potentially suitable habitat in Alberta and Saskatchewan were not surveyed; the actual population may have been as high as individuals Burrowing Owl Recovery Team It should be stressed that each of the COSEWIC status reports used different methods to estimate population sizes, thereby complicating long-term trend analysis.

No recent broad-scale censuses have been undertaken, but more recent population numbers can be estimated from trends in local population surveys see Summary of breeding season surveys below. Burrowing Owls are seen on too few Canadian Breeding Bird Survey routes to generate meaningful population trends Sauer et al. However, recent trend data from dedicated Burrowing Owl surveys in Canada show a clear decline in the number of owls since the late s see Summary of breeding season surveys below. Fluctuations in most samples, shown below, are minor compared to the overall declining trend.

The lone exception is in BC, where the population of adult individuals reflects the increased intensity of the captive breeding and release programs. Data from Manitoba show a decline from 76 nests in to 0 nests in De Smet , Figure 4 , and only one nest between and Since , up to 13 pairs have been confirmed breeding in Manitoba but no nests were documented in or Froese pers. Chart illustrating the trend in the number of pairs of Burrowing Owls found nesting in Manitoba from to In Saskatchewan, surveys done by Operation Burrowing Owl cover a large proportion of the historical range of the species in the province.

The surveys are based on the landowner members of OBO, which have remained relatively constant. However, the survey includes only data from participating landowners and should consequently be viewed as an approximation of the actual population trend in the province. The number of Burrowing Owls reported by private landowners enrolled in Operation Burrowing Owl in Saskatchewan has declined significantly, from an estimate of around breeding pairs in the late s to fewer than pairs since Figure 5.

Research done on the Regina Plain monitored the population status and breeding success of Burrowing Owls from to The projects occurred on ever-enlarging study areas. The long-term population trend on the Regina Plain shows a significant decline in numbers from to , and low numbers of breeding pairs since that time Figure 6. Surveys have been discontinued in the Regina Plain and more recent records are not currently available Wellicome and Poulin pers. Finally, in the west block of Grasslands National Park, including the adjoining Dixon ranch, the number of nesting pairs increased from to then declined Figure 7.

Breeding success in Grasslands National Park varied considerably among years, with a mean of between 0. Such annual variation is typical, but the overall reproductive success of Burrowing Owls in Grasslands National Park was slightly lower in recent years than that recorded in Great Plains states in the US McDonald et al.

The surveys in Grasslands National Park began after the large decline experienced elsewhere in the s. In summary, the various data sets from Saskatchewan suggest a significant long-term province-wide decline in the number of Burrowing Owls. Plots are shown for the number of pairs reported by OBO members, the estimated number of pairs with a correction for lower observation effort, and the number of OBO members. Chart illustrating trends in the number of Burrowing Owls found during surveys on the Regina Plain area in southcentral Saskatchewan, from to In Alberta, standardized surveys were conducted from the early s to near Hanna quarter sections and Brooks quarter sections , over areas that contain large blocks of suitable habitat Wellicome ; Scobie In the Brooks surveys, the decline was less dramatic, down to only 5 nests per km 2 in and , and 2 per km 2 in Figure Taken together, the standardized surveys and OGC data from Alberta suggest large declines in the abundance of breeding Burrowing Owls in the province.

Chart illustrating the trend in the number of Burrowing Owl nests per square kilometres on survey blocks near Hanna, Alberta, from to Chart illustrating the trend in the number of Burrowing Owl nests per square kilometres on survey blocks near Brooks, Alberta, from to , with exception of , , , and Chart illustrating trends in the number of Burrowing Owl pairs reported by Operation Grassland Community landholders and the number of OGC members in Alberta between and Before , breeding populations of Burrowing Owls occurred in the Okanagan and Similkameen valleys and near Kamloops Campbell et al.

From to , breeding Burrowing Owls were reported intermittently from only four areas Cannings et al. Twenty breeding records for the Okanagan Valley exist between and , but only three from to Cannings et al. Single owls were recorded near the Boundary Bay airport in , but no breeding records were observed Campbell et al. Burrowing Owls were extirpated in British Columbia sometime in the s Surgenor pers.

Efforts aimed at re-establishing a viable population in the province started with the release of captive-raised owls in the Thompson-Nicola region in and the release of owl families transplanted from Washington to the south Okanagan Valley from to Dyer The program has succeeded in establishing small numbers of captive-raised birds that breed and migrate; as of , 25 individual wild owls had been found in surveys in southern British Columbia Figure Efforts to increase the number of captive-raised and released owls have resulted in up to owls released annually Brodie pers.

The increasing number of returning owls indicates some success towards the goal of re-establishing a self-sustaining breeding population in British Columbia, although the fate of the majority of the released owls remains unknown. Chart illustrating the trend in the number of wild Burrowing Owls returning in the spring in southern British Columbia, from to If the whole Canadian prairie population has followed these trends, then these numbers lead to a conclusion that Burrowing Owls are at risk of disappearing from prairie Canada.

Based on the decadal trends above, estimates as of would be in Saskatchewan and in Alberta, recognizing that the actual number may be somewhat larger based on uncertainty regarding the estimates, but almost certainly far less than double. In the British Columbia population was counted as 16 Brodie pers. However, these data must be interpreted with caution as wintering Burrowing Owls in Texas and California are largely of unknown origin i.

Chart illustrating the pattern of abundance number seen per survey party-hour of Burrowing Owls seen on Christmas Bird Counts in Texas, from to Chart illustrating the pattern of abundance number seen per survey party-hour of Burrowing Owls seen on Christmas Bird Counts in California, from to Annual dispersal rates are high.

Based on stable isotope analysis of feathers, Duxbury determined that Thus, Duxbury demonstrated that the Burrowing Owl has high rates of dispersal across the international border. One dramatic example of intra-year dispersal of a Burrowing Owl has been published Holroyd et al. A female owl bred in Tucson, Arizona and southern Saskatchewan in the same year, raising two broods of young with two males, km apart.

An example of inter-year dispersal was provided by a female owl outfitted with a satellite transmitter that bred in southern Alberta one year and in Colorado the following year, approximately km apart Holroyd and Trefry c. The decline of Burrowing Owls in Canada is a function of multiple threats.

The Burrowing Owl recovery strategy identifies the following factors: Most Burrowing Owls are exposed to areas where prey availability and condition is affected by use of rodenticides and insecticides. Although the evidence is thus far only correlative, it appears that pesticides may affect reproductive success and survival by significantly decreasing prey abundance. Strychnine-treated grains used for rodent control and carbofuran-based insecticides remain widely used in the United States and Mexico and may pose a threat to the Canadian population of Burrowing Owls during migration and on the wintering grounds McDonald et al.

An additional potential threat in farmland is from annual crops that are treated with neonicotinoids that can reduce insect abundance that could reduce food supply for nesting Burrowing Owls. Mineau and Whiteside suggested that pesticides may be responsible for declines in bird populations inhabiting agricultural areas. Mineau and Palmer stated that the effects of neonicotinoids, which are used on 11 million ha of cropland across prairie Canada Main et al.

In Europe where more research on the impacts of neonicotinoids has been published, the European Food Safety Authority determined they pose unacceptable risks to insects Goulson and concentrations were correlated with declines of farmland birds Gibbons et al. While the impact of neonicotinoids on invertebrate abundance has been demonstrated EASAC , effects on Burrowing Owl prey and productivity are at this point speculative. Another pesticide threat to prairie ecosystems is doramectin, an insecticide that is given to livestock to treat parasites Olson pers.

Doramectin is a member of the group of insecticides known as avermectins. Although Floate et al. The impact of avermectins on prairie insect life is not well quantified Olson pers. An indirect impact of pesticides, specifically strychnine, is the loss of fossorial mammals due to direct and indirect poisoning Proulx ; this in turn reduces the availability of suitable nesting burrows for Burrowing Owls Environment Canada Undergrazing can also make otherwise potentially suitable habitat unattractive Holroyd pers. Burrowing Owl nest sites are often in native grasslands grazed by domestic livestock at higher than average stocking rates, resulting in higher than average bare ground exposure Hjertaas and Lyon ; Marsh et al.

It is not clear whether taller vegetation or denser litter decreases prey availability, increases abundance of nest predators, decreases foraging efficiency, or decreases effective predator vigilance by the owls themselves. Grasslands protected from grazing for prolonged periods of time become unattractive to Burrowing Owls, as has been observed at Grasslands National Park Holroyd pers.

Effects of invasive plants on Burrowing Owls are not well documented, but may also be a concern if they reduce bare ground cover Holroyd pers. Overall, natural system modifications through a combination of declining prey availability and reduced habitat suitability is likely the greatest current threat to Burrowing Owls. Although poorly quantified, collisions with vehicles are thought to be an important source of mortality for adult and juvenile Burrowing Owls.

Owls often forage near roads where grass conditions are optimal for small rodents and insects, and are thus susceptible to collision with vehicles. Droughts, temperature extremes, storms, and flooding are all part of the existing prairie environment. The degree to which these factors affect nesting and survival of Burrowing Owls is not fully known. However, Fisher et al. There are no published studies of the effect of energy production and mining on Burrowing Owls. However, oil and gas drilling occur within the Canadian breeding range, as do potash and gravel mining.

Regulation of these activities to mitigate for potential effects on Burrowing Owls likely results in a negligible effect on the overall population. Of potentially greater concern is proposed expansion of wind and solar energy production over the next years, especially in Alberta, but also through many other parts of the breeding, wintering, and migration range.

While habitat fragmentation and loss can be mitigated through careful siting, cumulative effects of mortality from collision with wind turbines may be significant for this species Smallwood et al. Predation by raptors and mammals is recognized as the main cause of adult and juvenile mortality on Canadian breeding grounds Wellicome and Haug ; Leupin and Low ; Todd et al. Avian predation was the primary cause of mortality in a study of Burrowing Owl survival in winter in Texas and central Mexico Holroyd and Trefry pers.

The high losses to predators were attributed to a combination of habitat fragmentation and reduced availability of mammalian prey principally Microtus voles; Todd a,b. Avian predators of Burrowing Owls have increased due to human activity. Shelterbelts, outbuildings, and trees have provided nest sites for avian predators on native prairie where none existed before Houston and Bechard ; Schmutz et al. Past and ongoing predator control actions affect Burrowing Owl nest success and survival. Historically the elimination of Wolves Canis lupus and Grizzly Bears Ursus arctos from the prairies allowed smaller predators such as Coyote, Striped Skunk and Raccoon Procyon lotor to increase Wellicome and Haug Red Fox Vulpes vulpes has also expanded into the prairies Kamler and Ballard ; this species has had negative impacts on a wide variety of waterfowl, grouse and other birds in North America Sargeant et al.

These species are Burrowing Owl nest predators, as are American Badgers. Feral cats may also prey upon Burrowing Owls on occasion Sleno , although this is not likely a substantial concern. The provision of artificial nest burrows has been shown to decrease nest predation Henny and Blus ; Olenick ; De Smet ; Wellicome Historically, the ultimate threat to viable populations of Burrowing Owls is thought to have been the conversion and degradation of habitat Wellicome and Haug ; Clayton and Schmutz ; Poulin et al.

Great Plains Samson and Knopf Since then annual habitat loss has been estimated at between 0. These losses of native grassland are mirrored in the US Klute et al. Although the loss of grassland is significant, the direct impact on the population of Burrowing Owls is not obvious. Holroyd and Trefry b concluded that the decline of Burrowing Owl population in prairie Canada was occurring faster than the rate of land conversion; consequently land conversion was not the prime factor driving population declines.

Along with conversion to cultivation, fragmentation of native prairie has increased. In the Regina Plain, Saskatchewan and Special Areas in central Alberta, juvenile Burrowing Owls remain closer to their natal burrow in small prairie fragments than on larger grassland patches, but whether this has an effect on their survival is not known Clayton and Schmutz ; Todd et al. The impact of agriculture on suitable habitats on migration routes and in winter in the US and Mexico is poorly understood. Burrowing Owls migrating to and from Canada would have used prairie dog colonies and must have been affected by this huge loss of habitat.

Increases in agricultural use of grasslands in Chihuahua, Mexico will affect Burrowing Owls Pool In winter in south Texas and Mexico, Burrowing Owls occupy a wide variety of habitats beyond just grassland, and they do not always roost in burrows Holroyd et al. Some occupied habitats are intensively cultivated fields where Burrowing Owl weights and survival appear high Holroyd and Trefry pers.

Populations of Burrowing Owls in irrigated cropland in southern California are the densest in North America, but are also declining Klute et al. Typically Burrowing Owls fare well where there is grazing, as shorter vegetation facilitates effective hunting. All Burrowing Owls that nest in PFRA pastures are potentially threatened by loss of grazing livestock and changes in grazing rates due to the transfer of ownership and management of these pastures. If these pastures are converted to cultivated crop, the owls will have reduced access to foraging areas and burrows for nesting.

High nestling mortality due to low prey availability is an important factor limiting burrowing owls, but it is unclear which factors influence this threat the most. The intensity of grazing on native grasslands may be among the causes, but no studies have specifically addressed this issue. Overall, while agriculture has no doubt contributed significantly to past declines in Burrowing Owl populations, current practices likely have a low impact due to the reduced rate of habitat conversion and the neutral or positive effects of grazing.

Threats from residential and commercial development category 1 were considered negligible, given minimal additional urbanization expected within Burrowing Owl range over the next decade. There have been previous losses of Burrowing Owls in relation to urbanization, most notably Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, where pairs nested at the town fairgrounds, on the golf course and elsewhere, but have become extirpated despite a conservation plan approved by city council in City of Moose Jaw One or two pairs nesting on Lulu Island BC now the city of Richmond may also have been displaced by urbanization.

However, Trulio describes successful nesting of Burrowing Owls in urban areas south of San Francisco, California, and pairs also nest in and appear to prosper in other southern US cities e. Thus is it not clear that urbanization itself is harmful to owls. Human intrusion and disturbance category 6 is considered negligible, as Burrowing Owls are generally tolerant of minor human disturbance around nest sites. Each year, researchers visit burrowing owl nests in prairie Canada and in BC. Currently, research includes attaching satellite transmitters to adult owls and monitoring owl occupancy and productivity in Grasslands National Park and in BC.

Case Study - Burrowing Owl

While indirect effects of pollution described above under category 7 are likely significant for Burrowing Owls, there may also be some direct effects category 9; Fox et al. While ingestion of prey killed by rodenticides e. Heavy use of insecticides and herbicides near Burrowing Owl foraging and roosting areas has been observed but not quantified on the wintering grounds in Mexico Holroyd and Trefry pers.

In California, samples of Burrowing Owl eggs show varying levels of DDE contamination among years, with significant negative effects on reproductive success during years of poor food availability Gervais and Anthony They speculated that road noise interfered with predator detection and intraspecific communication of danger, but it is unlikely that the effect on the population is more than negligible. Biological resource use category 5 and geological events category 10 are not considered to pose any threats to Burrowing Owls.

In many areas of their range, Burrowing Owls historically were often victims of shooting programs aimed at prairie dogs James and Espie Even when such shooting is not directed at owls, they can be shot accidently Woodard However, Burrowing Owls are currently so rare in Canada that shooting is not likely an ongoing concern.

Burrowing Owls have high potential productivity but low annual survival, and in recent decades large numbers of young have been produced only rarely Wellicome ; Environment Canada ; Wellicome et al. Population stability is affected by dispersal, emigration, and immigration Koenig These features are discussed in this section.

In Canada, Burrowing Owls are at the northern edge of their range, and typically have a large clutch size. However, productivity is frequently only three to five young per successful nesting attempt. The year was an exception, with eight young per successful nest due to high populations of meadow voles. The Burrowing Owl appears adapted for a boom-bust life history dependent on abundant food supply. Losses of younger nestlings were due to starvation and cannibalism in the first three weeks after hatching Wellicome , which occurred during particularly rainy periods Fisher et al.

Factors reducing reproductive success may thus be limiting Burrowing Owls in Canada. Nest failures are another limiting factor. Complete nest losses occur due to nest predation, wet weather, and adult mortality see details in Threats. De Smet and Todd et al. Post-fledging survival from fledging to migration is typically low.

In contrast, adult survival during the breeding season is relatively high: Nothing is known about survival during the autumn and spring migrations. The close correlation between nesting productivity in a given year and the size of the population in the following year highlights the short generation time of years and dependence of adult fidelity on nest success Franken and Wellicome ; Todd et al. De Smet showed that successful territories in Manitoba were over three times more likely to be reoccupied the following year than failed territories, and successful territories when reoccupied in subsequent years were four times more likely to be successful in the subsequent years than reoccupied unsuccessful territories.

Long-term 6- to year banding and recapture datasets were used to estimate annual adult survival for Burrowing Owls in each of the three prairie provinces of Canada Wellicome et al. Annual survival of Canadian owls was reduced when storms occurred along the migratory route through the United States, and also when above-average precipitation occurred on the wintering grounds in Mexico, but was uninfluenced by indices of small mammal or grasshopper abundance on the breeding grounds over the same years Wellicome et al.

Recruitment by juveniles is very low at 3. These return rates are limited by the size of the respective study areas. The species shows large average annual dispersal distances Wellicome et al. Duxbury found that return rates based on resighting of banded owls was positively correlated with study area size, indicating that dispersal of returning owls complicates calculation of true annual survival. The conclusion of his research is that factors affecting breeding populations in the US and Mexico could negatively affect Canadian populations.

In summary, Burrowing Owls have high potential reproductive potential but low productivity, low annual survival, and high rates of dispersal resulting in net emigration from Canada Franken et al. The number of locations is large given the dispersed nature of the Burrowing Owl population and the various threats. Because many pairs of owls nest far from others, each nesting pair would be an effective location.

Depending upon the surrounding habitats and land uses, the threats would differ with each situation. Consequently it is not practical to consider locations for Burrowing Owls. Some of the recovery actions identified in the strategy have been initiated. Burrowing Owls are not covered under the federal Migratory Birds Convention Act , because raptors are excluded from it and are instead protected by the provincial wildlife acts in the four western provinces: For Burrowing Owls within any of the four provinces of western Canada, provincial wildlife legislation has provisions that make it illegal to kill, injure, disturb, capture or possess a Burrowing Owl or its eggs, or to destroy a Burrowing Owl nest.

Such provisions within federal or provincial legislation pertain to all Burrowing Owls or their nests, whether their locations are recorded by a government agency or are otherwise currently known or unknown. NatureServe currently classifies Burrowing Owl as G4 apparently secure globally because they occur in North and South America, although they may be quite rare in parts of their range , but this status has not been updated since S1B is defined as critically imperilled because of rarity, or a factor of species biology making it especially vulnerable to extinction.

S2B refers to a species that is either very rare or local throughout its range, or found locally in a restricted range. Summaries of the protection and legal status of Burrowing Owls in the United States and Canada can be found in Klute et al. The majority of suitable Burrowing Owl habitat in Canada is under private management. Habitat protection programs have therefore been initiated with voluntary land stewardship programs including Operation Burrowing Owl in Saskatchewan and Operation Grassland Community in Alberta.

These programs encourage landowners to report the number of Burrowing Owls on their land each year, to protect nesting areas from cultivation and pesticide use, and to consider planting native grasses in place of cropland. Both programs have been successful in developing management plans for producers, raising the profile of native species, helping to retain native grasslands Warnock and Skeel , and also contributing valuable long-term data to Burrowing Owl monitoring efforts.

PRFA pastures contain some of the largest native grasslands remaining in Canada. The decision of the federal government to hand over 1. Most of these colonies are inside Grasslands National Park, and all Burrowing Owl critical habitat identified on federal protected areas land inside the Park has been gazetted Government of Canada Beyond the critical habitat in prairie dog colonies, additional critical habitat has been identified in locations within southwestern Saskatchewan, where Burrowing Owls occupy Richardson's Ground Squirrel or American Badger burrows.

Protection of Burrowing Owl habitat along migration routes US and on wintering grounds Mexico depends on whether these habitats happen to fall within conservation areas, which are not typically identified to target Burrowing Owl protection, in particular Holroyd et al. A number of regional experts have provided direct comments or published and unpublished information on the status and biology of Burrowing Owls in Canada in support of this status report:.

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The following people provided useful comments on earlier drafts: Alberta Environment and Sustainable Resource Development. Alberta species at risk [accessed March ]. World range of Burrowing Owl Athene cunicularia. Bird Populations Monographs No. BC Conservation Data Centre. BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer. State of the Climate in Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Mail correspondence to G.

Researcher, Kamloops, British Columbia. Email correspondence to G. Burrowing Owl Recovery Team. October meeting minutes, Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan. Life history and habitat requirements of Burrowing Owls in western Oklahoma. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. The importance of prairie dog colonies to Burrowing Owls in Oklahoma.

Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Sciences The birds of British Columbia, Vol. The General Status of Species in Canada. Birds of the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia. Burrowing Owl in Davidson, P. City of Moose Jaw. Burrowing Owl Conservation Plan Handbook. Moose Jaw City Council, Saskatchewan. A review of the taxonomy and distribution of the Burrowing Owl Speotyto cunicularia. Journal of Raptor Research Report 9.

Working bibliography of owls of the world, with summaries of current taxonomy and distributional status. Post-fledging ecology of Burrowing Owls in Alberta and Saskatchewan: Is the decline of burrowing owls Speotyto cunicularia in prairie Canada linked to changes in Great Plains ecosystems? Bird Conservation International 9: Canadian species at risk. April , edited April , Version 1. Regional Climates - United States. Burrowing Owl Speotyto cunicularia monitoring and management activities in Manitoba, Biology and conservation of owls of the Northern Hemisphere: North Central Forest Experimental Station.

Biologist, Manitoba Conservation, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Ecological aspects of Burrowing Owl nesting strategies in the Nebraska panhandle. Correlations between Burrowing Owl and black-tailed prairie dog declines: Journal of Wildlife Management Extirpation of alternative prey during a small rodent crash. Stable isotope analysis and the investigation of the migrations and dispersal of peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus and burrowing owls Athene cunicularia.

Proceedings of the second endangered species and prairie conservation workshop. Ecosystem services, agriculture and neonicotinoids. An online database of bird distribution and abundance. Description of residence for Burrowing Owl Athene cunicularia in Canada. Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Environment and Climate Change Canada. South of the Divide. Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa. Does Doramectin use on cattle indirectly affect the endangered burrowing owl? Rangeland Ecology Management The impact of the insecticide carbofuran Furadan F on the burrowing owl in Canada.

Extreme precipitation reduces reproductive output of an endangered raptor. Journal of Applied Ecology Canadian Wildlife Service unpubl. Chronic organochlorine contaminants, environmental variability, and the demographics of a burrowing owl population. Space use and pesticide exposure risk of male burrowing owls in an agricultural landscape. A review of the direct and indirect effects of neonicotinoids and fipronil on vertebrate wildlife. Environmental Science and Pollution Research: Canada Gazette, Part 1.

Declines in insectivorous birds are associated with high neonicotinoid concentrations. Observations on the breeding ecology of Burrowing Owls in Saskatchewan. Manitoba Burrowing Owl conservation program. Movements, activity patterns, and habitat use of Burrowing Owls in Saskatchewan. Updated status report on the Burrowing Owl in Canada.

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Email correspondence to M. Artificial burrows provide new insight into Burrowing Owl nesting biology. The Future of Community Pastures; Workshop. National recovery plan for the Burrowing Owl. Wildlife Technical Report Writer of this status report. Environment Canada retired , Beaver County, Alberta.

Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Quebec. Conservation of the Burrowing Owl in western North America: Journal of Raptor Research