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The taproot at least in young specimens may be as much as twice the height of the tree. Neem is renowned for good growth on dry, infertile sites. It performs better than most trees where soils are sterile, stony, and shallow, or where there is a hardpan near the surface. The tree also grows well on some acid soils. Indeed, it is said that the fallen neem leaves, which are slightly alkaline pH 8. On the other hand, neem cannot stand "wet feet," and quickly dies if the site becomes waterlogged. Neem often grows rapidly.

It can be cut for timber after just years. Maximum yields reported from northern Nigeria Samaru amounted to m3 of fuelwood per hectare after a rotation of 8 years. Yields in Ghana were recorded between and m3 per hectare in the same time. Weeds seldom affect growth. Except in the case of very young plants, neem can dominate almost all competitors.

In fact, the trees themselves may become "weeds. For the same reason, natural regeneration under old trees is often abundant. But for all that, in virtually every place it grows neem is considered a boon, not a bane. People almost always like to see more neems coming up. Neem is renowned for its robust growth and resilience to harsh conditions, but, like all living things, it has various shortcomings, some of which are discussed below.

By and large, most neem trees are reputed to be remarkably pest free; however, in Nigeria 14 insect species and I parasitic plant have been recorded as pests. Few of the attacks were serious, and the trees almost invariably recovered, although their growth and branching may have been affected. However, in recent years a more serious threat has emerged. In some parts of Africa mainly in the Lake Chad Basin , a scale insect Aonidiella orientalis has become a serious pest.

This and other scale insects sometimes infest neem trees in central and south India.

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They feed on sap, and although they do little harm to mature trees, they may kill young ones. Now that one type has been detected in Africa, the impact could be severe. It has been suggested that a drastic lowering of the groundwater level around Lake Chad - which nearly dried out during a drought in the Sahel - was the main reason for the outbreak.

This is perhaps true; scale insects are usually "secondary" pests that multiply best on plants that are already damaged by other pests or other adverse environmental factors. Even though neem timber is renowned for termite resistance, termites sometimes damage, or even kill, the living trees. They usually attack only sickly specimens, however.

Despite the fact that the leaves contain fungicidal and antibacterial ingredients, certain microbes may attack different parts of the tree, including the following:. A canker disease that discolors the wood and seems to coincide with a sudden absorption of water after long droughts has also been observed. A lack of zinc or potassium drastically reduces growth. Trees affected by zinc deficiency show chlorosis of the leaf tips and leaf margins, their shoots exude much resin, and their older leaves fall off.

Those with potassium deficiency show leaf tip and marginal chlorosis and die back necrosis. Fire kills neem seedlings outright. However, mature trees almost always regrow, especially if the dead parts are quickly cut away. High winds are a potential problem. Large trees frequently snap off during hurricanes, cyclones, or typhoons. Neem is therefore a poor candidate for planting in areas prone to such violent storms. Seedlings regenerating beneath stands of neem are sensitive to sudden exposure to intense sunlight. Thus, clear-felling neem trees normally produces a massive seedling kill, especially if the seedlings are small.

In some localities rats and porcupines kill young trees by gnawing the bark around the base.

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Even when not causing any physical damage, rodents can be pests: Neem, with its intensely bitter foliage, is not a preferred browse, but if nothing else is available goats and camels will eat it. In fact, in Asia goats and camels have been known to browse young neem trees so severely in times of scarcity that the plants died. In Africa neem is generally ignored by livestock which makes the tree easy to establish even within villages and courtyards.

The reason that livestock treat neem differently in Asia and Africa is unknown at present. It may be differences in the tree specimens, or in the animals' preferences or past experiences. Books available at the Neem Foundation http: Two ways to support the work of howtopedia for more practical articles on simple technologies: Support us financially or, Testimonials on how you use howtopedia are just as precious: Among Neem's many benefits, the one that is most immediately practical is the control of farm and household pests.

For centuries, India's farmers have known that the Neem trees withstand the periodic infestations of locusts. Neem extracts applied to vegetable crops repel locusts Heinrich Schmutterer, For example, one outstanding neem component, azadirachtin , disrupts the metamorphosis of insect larvae. Another neem substance, salannin , is a similarly powerful repellent. In trials, the leaves and stems of wheat, barley, rice, sugarcane, tomatoes, cotton , and chrysanthemums have been protected from certain types of damaging insects for 10 weeks in this way.

The tests have included several dozen serious farm and household pests. To obtain the insecticide from Neem is simple at least in principle. For example, grind 1kg of nuts from the neem fruit, mix the powder with 15 litres of water and leave to soak for 24 hours. Link to Fourthway's poster "How to make a natural pesticide": Most countries in the world have large refineries producing cooking oil from a variety of raw materials including maize, sunflower, soya, coconut, mustard seed and groundnuts.

These large centralised plants have the advantage of high efficiency and reduced costs due to the economy of scale. Despite this, in many situations smaller scale decentralised oil extraction can prove to be economic and provide opportunities for income generation. Most commonly, opportunities exist where: In many countries the oil processing sector is highly politicised and regulations exist which make entering the market difficult and tend to support the monopoly of the large processors. Large refineries may, for example, insist that farmers sell all their seed under a contract.

In other cases seed has to be sold to a central Government marketing board, the board also supplying seed for planting. To determine whether small scale processing is likely to be economic it is most important to first investigate the local situation and regulations. Clearly there must be sufficient raw material available locally.

One factor that will greatly influence the viability of the enterprise will be the amount of credit needed to purchase a stock of seed. The enterprise should aim to keep the minimum stock of seed but always have enough to continue operating throughout the year. This requires considerable working capital. In general more profit will be made if the cooking oil is packed into retail size bottles. In many countries glass or plastic bottles are difficult to obtain and need to be purchased in large quantities so tying up capital.

The possibility of using second-hand bottles should be examined as well as selling in drums to local stores. A survey need to be carried out to make sure that the packaging used meets the demands of customers. The viability of any oil extraction enterprise depends to a considerable extent on the sale of the oil cake for use in animal feeds and other sub-products.

Markets for oil cake must be investigated and demand established before processing starts. As oil processing is classified as a food processing enterprise it will be subject to local legislation. Care should be taken that standards are understood and met. The particular problem of aflatoxins will require attention. Aflatoxins are natural poisons produced by certain moulds that grow on seeds and nuts. They are of considerable concern to oil seed processors and groundnuts are particularly susceptible to contamination. The growth of aflatoxin producing moulds can be prevented by correct drying and by preventing moisture pickup by raw materials in store.

It is most important that those considering establishing an edible oil enterprise should be able to recognise aflatoxin producing moulds and understand how to correctly select and store raw materials. If aflatoxin is present very little passes to the extracted oil, the majority will be found in the cake remaining after extraction. Aflatoxin contaminated cake presents a real danger if incorporated in livestock feeds. As aflatoxin is difficult to remove good practice is essential to prevent any mould growth and so prevent problems.

Not all oilseed crops are suitable for processing at small scale, the most common types that are suitable include groundnut, sunflower, coconut, sesame, mustard seed, oil palm and shea nuts. Typical oil contents of common raw materials are shown in Table 1. In many cases the crude extracted oil is not suitable for human consumption until it has been refined to remove undesirable free fatty acids that taste rancid, dark colours and waxes. Refining involves considerable extra equipment costs. The most suitable oils for small and medium scale extraction are those that need little or no refining eg.

Here the finely ground oilseed is either boiled in water and the oil that floats to the surface is skimmed off or ground kernels are mixed with water and squeezed and mixed by hand to release the oil. Here oilseeds, usually pre-ground, are pressed in manual screw presses. A typical press is shown in diagram 1. An expeller consists of a motor driven screw turning in a perforated cage. The screw pushes the material against a small outlet, the "choke". Great pressure is exerted on the oilseed fed through the machine to extract the oil.

Expelling is a continuous method unlike the previous two batch systems. A ghani consists of a large pestle and mortar rotated either by animal power or by a motor. Seed is fed slowly into the mortar and the pressure exerted by the pestle breaks the cells and releases the oil. Ghani technology is mainly restricted to the Indian sub-continent. Oils from seeds or the cake remaining from expelling is extracted with solvents and the oil is recovered after distilling off the solvent under vacuum.

Most small enterprises will find that small expellers are the best technology choice. Methods such as water extraction and manual pressing only produce small amounts of oil per day, the extraction efficiencies are low and labour requirements high. Solvent extraction while highly efficient involves very substantial capital cost and is only economic at large scale. There are also health and safety risk from using inflammable solvents.

The equipment needed to set up a small or medium scale oil extraction enterprise falls into three main categories: The specific equipment required will depend on the particular crop being processed, the final oil quality required and the scale of operation. In a small guide it is impossible to cover both the whole range of technical options and possible crops the following section concentrates on one example; the extraction of sunflower and groundnut oil by expeller. Most oil bearing seed need to be separated from outer husk or shell.

This is referred to as shelling, hulling or decortication. Shelling increases the oil extraction efficiency and reduces wear in the expeller as the husks are abrasive.

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A wide range of manual and mechanical decorticators are available and typical examples are shown in Figure 2. After decortication the shell may have to be separated from the kernels by winnowing. At small scale this can be done by throwing the material into the air and allowing the air to blow away the husk. At larger scale mechanical winnowers and seed cleaners are available.

Pre-heating the seeds prior to expelling speeds up the release of the oil. Pre-heating is generally carried out in a steam heated kettle mounted above the expeller. A wide range of makes and sizes of expellers are available. In India in particular a number of efficient small or "baby" expellers are available. This machine has a central cylinder or cage fitted with eight separate sections or "worms". This flexible system allows single or double-reverse use and spreads wear more evenly along the screw. When the screw becomes worn only individual sections require repair thus reducing maintenance costs.

As the material passes through the expeller the oil is squeezed out, exits through the perforated cage and is collected in a trough under the machine. This was in consonance with the findings in most recent community-based studies conducted in Nigeria. This was consistent with the result of a survey of hypertension among adult residents of Ajegunle community, Lagos State, Nigeria; [20] a survey of hypertension among adults patients attending a Missionary Hospital in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria; [46] and in a survey of BP gradients and cardiovascular risk factors in urban and rural populations in Abia State, Nigeria.

Magnitude and pattern of hypertension in the Niger Delta: A systematic review and meta-analysis of community-based studies. Background Emerging evidence found that health inequality in the Niger Delta region in Nigeria has continued to worsen due to epidemiological and environmental risks transitions. This study aims to provide an up-to-date review and the secular trends of hypertension prevalence in Niger Delta. Eligible studies were included in a random-effect meta-analysis of prevalence and secular trend.

Results Overall, 34 eligible studies comprising of data on participants with mean-age of The pooled result showed that across study settings, the prevalence of hypertension in rural population tended to be higher than those in urban areas, The overall mean SBP was The estimates also vary significantly in men compared to women; Conclusions This study found evidence that hypertension is a major public health issue in the Niger Delta communities suggesting a positive relationship between socio-economic and lifestyle factors. Improved surveillance and care, as well as better management of the underlying risk factors, primarily undetected or uncontrolled high blood pressure, remains an important public health priority.

To date, this is the first attempt to estimate the prevalence of hypertension in Kaugama LGA and the results are consistent with previous cross-sectional studies from rural areas in the South-west [28] and South-south [29] regions of Nigeria. In addition, the associations between hypertension and several risk factors, especifically age, gender, socioeconomic status, lifestyle factors, comorbidities, and community of residence, are comparable with findings from population-based studies conducted in other low-and middle-income countries.

Hypertension is a major public health problem in Nigeria; it contributes to the double burden of morbidity and mortality in the country. However, the burden of hypertension is not known in many areas of the country particularly rural settlements. The purpose of this study is to investigate the prevalence and spatial distribution of hypertension and its correlates in a rural district of Northern Nigeria. A total of adults 18 years and above took part in a community-based cross-sectional survey. Data were collected through administering questionnaires, anthropometric measurements, blood pressure, and blood glucose measurements.

Standard logistic regression models were used to examine the association between hypertension and its correlates. Spatial distribution was assessed using graduated point symbology. The overall prevalence of hypertension in the study population was The risk of hypertension was higher among women adjusted odds ratios 2. The spatial analysis revealed variation in the prevalence of hypertension and its correlates across communities with the resident populations of Hadin, Unguwar Jibrin, Zaburan, Madana, Askandu, and Yalleman communities being at a higher risk.

Hypertension is a significant public health issue even in remotest areas of low- and middle-income countries, and therefore, cost-effective population-wide prevention strategies are required. The purpose of the study was to determine the incidence of hypertension among pregnant women in Enugu East LGA of Enugu state The study adopted a retrospective descriptive research design.

Specifically, four research questions and two null hypotheses guided the study. The retrospective descriptive research design was adopted for the study. A total of case files were retrieved for the present study. The instrument for data collection was the researchers' developed inventory proforma. Data on systolic over diastolic blood pressurereadings at first hospital visit were abstracted and analysed. The research questions were answered using percentages while the regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses at 0.

The results presented in tables and graphs showed very high incidence rate of hypertension that increased from cases per women in to cases of hypertension per women in Based on the findings of the study, the researchers recommended among other things that pregnant and childbearing mothers should check their blood pressure regularly to prevent the incidence of hypertension among this group. Onwuchekwa et al, reported a prevalence of It also suggests that rural communities are not left out in this rampaging scourge.

Prevalence of hypertension and associated factors in a rural community in Bayelsa State. Hypertension is considered among the most common non-communicable diseases globally with significant morbidity and mortality. Closely related to it is pre-hypertension, a category between hypertension and normotension which is believed to be a forerunner to hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Hypertension has been on the increase in recent times, even in rural communities which were previously less affected.

The study was carried during the world health day as a screening exercise to determine the prevalence of hypertension and its associated factors in a rural community. This cross-sectional study was conducted in Ogboloma village, a small rural community in Bayelsa State, Ngeria Consecutive sampling of all eligible participants who presented for the screening exercise was done.

Socio-demographic data, clinical history, anthropometry and blood pressure were taken. Data was stored and analyzed using SPSS version One hundred and thirty-one participants completed the study.

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There were 49 The prevalence of hypertension was Hypertension and Pre-hypertension were highly prevalent in this rural community. Age and smoking were significant predictors of hypertension. Hypertension screening and control programmes should therefore target rural communities and smokers. Comparison of three risk estimators to guide initiation of statin therapy for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Oct J Clin Lipidol. Among high-risk individuals, statins are beneficial for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease CVD. In Nigeria, currently, there are no CVD prevention guidelines, so the use of CVD risk estimation to guide statin therapy is left to the discretion of the physician.

Prevalence of hypertension in Kegbara-Dere, a rural community in the Niger Delta Region, Nigeria

The objective of the study was to compare 3 CVD risk estimation tools in the evaluation of patients presenting to a tertiary hospital in Nigeria. Cross-sectional study involving patients with any CVD risk factors but not taking statins. Traditional CVD risk factors were assessed with a standard questionnaire and laboratory evaluation.

Kappa statistic was used to determine agreement among the estimators. Risk factors for CVD were hypertension The considerable variation in prediction of high risk using the 3 tools may lead to underutilization of evidence-based therapy. This underscores the dire need for the development of risk prediction tools derived from our own Nigerian population.

In this study, we investigated whether slow breathing reduces blood pressure BP in individuals at risk of developing hypertension and if slow breathing has the same effect on Caucasian, African, Arabian and Indian subjects. Karazin Kharkiv National University were recruited in this study. The subjects were further classified into normotensive and prehypertensive groups. It was found that slowing respiratory rate to 6 breaths per minute reduces SBP in prehypertensive Caucasians, Arabs, Indians, but not in Africans. At 6 breaths per minute, natural logarithm of HF LnHF power indicating cardiovagal activity was less in normotensive Arabs than in Caucasians, Africans and Indians possibly suggesting an increased risk of developing hypertension; while prehypertensive Africans demonstrated LnHF power higher than Arabs and Indians.

It is suggested that in prehypertensive Africans the control of autonomic nervous activity is reset to a higher level of parasympathetic outflow. An Indian study conducted amongst adolescent children showed that the prevalence of hypertension was about 7. It is a major threat to the health of people in sub-Saharan Africa and a major contributor to morbidity and mortality in the sub-region [11] [12] [13] [14]. The awareness of hypertension is low in Nigeria.

Hypertension is a major public health problem that adversely affects the health status of individuals, families and communities. L-arginine levels of a total of 90 consecutively-recruited hypertensive subjects and 50 age-matched non-hypertensive controls were studied. Plasma from subjects and control participants were analyzed for L-arginine.

The mean values of L-arginine level were significantly lower among the hypertensive subjects which are The L-arginine level was significantly higher among married hypertensive subjects The mean value of L-arginine level was significantly higher among hypertensive subjects with mild blood pressure The findings from this study confirm that the level of L-arginine is lower among hypertensive subjects compared to non-hypertensive controls. Age, gender and ethnicity did not have a significant effect on the L-arginine levels of hypertensive subjects. L-arginine level was significantly lower among single hypertensive patients and those with markedly raised blood pressure.

It is recommended the L-arginine supplement be prescribed to hypertensive patient as a prophylactic measure. There is a need to enlighten hypertensive patients in the area on the need to maintain a balanced diet containing sufficient level of L-arginine.

A Comparative Cross-Sectional Study. Evidence of positive association between traffic-related air pollution and elevated blood pressure has been published widely. However, the risk of hypertension and prolonged exposure to crude oil pollution and gas flares remains unexplored. Prevalence and risk of hypertension, anthropometric indices, lifestyle and sociodemographic factors, and cardiovascular comorbidities were examined and compared between the 2 groups. Both univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used to examine factors associated with hypertension.

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