Onto Creatividad (Spanish Edition)

Of the various artistic treatises written in this period, the ones by the painters Francisco Pacheco , Vicente Carducho and Antonio Palomino contain the most detailed explanations about the materials used5. In all three cases the treatises deal with the art of painting in general and include, at shorter or greater length, references to the materials and the procedures employed by artists. In addition, the text often includes an assessment of methods by comparing technique and approaches.

About 70 Spanish paintings have been included in this study. Detail of El Greco, Adoration of the shepherds. Detail of El Greco, Adoration of the shepherds, Patrimonio Nacional [National Heritage], inv. The Prado Museum's Laboratory has evidenced the existence of bases coloured in various tones in numerous works by Titian and Tintoretto. La pintura italiana del Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza. The only painting by Navarrete belonging to the Prado Museum The Baptism of Christ , P was executed on a wooden panel, and as such it has not been taken into account for this study. In the first half of the seventeenth century the use of coloured priming layers would rapidly become widespread, setting the standards, with regard to the practice of painting, which would characterize both the schools of Seville and of Madrid The brown colour, typical of Seville priming layers may be seen particularly around the edges of the figures.

Brown coloured earth pigments, with a low iron oxide and pyrite content, as well as a high amount of calcium carbonate and small proportions of white lead, are detected in the EDX spectrum. The terms "Madrid School" and "Seville School" refer here solely to geographical location, without making reference to stylistic traits. The information to which we had access and the data directly obtained from the Prado Museum's Analysis Laboratory did not permit us to include data related to other local schools.

This composition may correspond to one of the ground layers mentioned by both Pacheco and Palomino which consisted of sifted ash "cernada". According to Pacheco, this type was specifically used in Madrid. The remaining elements presents are in proportional order: In seventeenth century painting there are some exceptions to this general rule of using coloured priming layers with varying degrees of dark tones.

Only in a few works does he use differently coloured priming layers: Vicente Carducho also preferred light backgrounds for his paintings, as can be seen from the suite of Carthusian scenes he painted for the Monastery of Paular 32 , The Holy Family and from The Capture of Rheinfelden , which he painted for the Hall of Realms. The paintings at El Paular and The Holy Family have a light brown coloured oil-based priming layer made of reddish and brown earth pigments with a low iron content and a high proportion of magnesium 33 , as well as small amounts of white lead added as a siccative.

Regarding his painting for the Hall of Realms its priming layer has a similarly light tone and is also executed in oil fig. However, on this occasion the main component is gypsum, accompanied by earth pigments with low iron and magnesium content, and a small proportion of white lead. As we mentioned earlier, both Carducho and Palomino refer to this in their texts The relative proportions of azelaic, palmitic and stearic acids indicate it is linseed oil.

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The use of a grey priming layer found in works from Toledo could be said to be a common pictorial practice employed by the Toledan artistic milieu. This high level of magnesium content is a constant in the priming layers of works executed from to that have been studied by the Prado Museum Analysis Laboratory. This fact may perhaps be more related to the origin and qualities of the pigments supplied to Carducho's studio during this period than to the express wishes of the artist.

I, Madrid, , p. Curiously, most of the artists who took part in the commission opted for a similar solution, even though it was not their usual technique. Solely in the piece The Capture of Rheinfelden , by Vicente Carducho, the identified materials differ from the rest. This artist remains faithful to his customary technique of painting on top of light-toned neutral bases preferring this to the use of lighter priming layers by the rest of the group.

The rejection of creativity in favor of discovery and the belief that individual creation was a conduit of the divine would dominate the West probably until the Renaissance and even later. This could be attributed to the leading intellectual movement of the time, aptly named humanism , which developed an intensely human-centric outlook on the world, valuing the intellect and achievement of the individual. However, this shift was gradual and would not become immediately apparent until the Enlightenment. As a direct and independent topic of study, creativity effectively received no attention until the 19th century.

In particular, they refer to the work of Francis Galton , who through his eugenicist outlook took a keen interest in the heritability of intelligence, with creativity taken as an aspect of genius. In his work Art of Thought , published in , Wallas presented one of the first models of the creative process. In the Wallas stage model, creative insights and illuminations may be explained by a process consisting of 5 stages:. Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the evolutionary process, which allowed humans to quickly adapt to rapidly changing environments.

Simonton [21] provides an updated perspective on this view in his book, Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. The formal psychometric measurement of creativity, from the standpoint of orthodox psychological literature, is usually considered to have begun with J. Guilford 's address to the American Psychological Association , which helped popularize the topic [24] and focus attention on a scientific approach to conceptualizing creativity. It should be noted that the London School of Psychology had instigated psychometric studies of creativity as early as with the work of H.

Hargreaves into the Faculty of Imagination, [25] but it did not have the same impact. Statistical analysis led to the recognition of creativity as measured as a separate aspect of human cognition to IQ -type intelligence, into which it had previously been subsumed. Guilford's work suggested that above a threshold level of IQ, the relationship between creativity and classically measured intelligence broke down. Kaufman and Beghetto introduced a "four C" model of creativity; mini-c "transformative learning" involving "personally meaningful interpretations of experiences, actions, and insights" , little-c everyday problem solving and creative expression , Pro-C exhibited by people who are professionally or vocationally creative though not necessarily eminent and Big-C creativity considered great in the given field.

This model was intended to help accommodate models and theories of creativity that stressed competence as an essential component and the historical transformation of a creative domain as the highest mark of creativity. It also, the authors argued, made a useful framework for analyzing creative processes in individuals.

Creativity

The contrast of terms "Big C" and "Little c" has been widely used. Robinson [29] and Anna Craft [30] have focused on creativity in a general population, particularly with respect to education. Craft makes a similar distinction between "high" and "little c" creativity. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi [31] has defined creativity in terms of those individuals judged to have made significant creative, perhaps domain-changing contributions.

Simonton has analysed the career trajectories of eminent creative people in order to map patterns and predictors of creative productivity. There has been much empirical study in psychology and cognitive science of the processes through which creativity occurs. Interpretation of the results of these studies has led to several possible explanations of the sources and methods of creativity. Incubation is a temporary break from creative problem solving that can result in insight. Ward [34] lists various hypotheses that have been advanced to explain why incubation may aid creative problem-solving, and notes how some empirical evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that incubation aids creative problem-solving in that it enables "forgetting" of misleading clues.

Absence of incubation may lead the problem solver to become fixated on inappropriate strategies of solving the problem. This allows for unique connections to be made without your consciousness trying to make logical order out of the problem. Guilford [38] drew a distinction between convergent and divergent production commonly renamed convergent and divergent thinking. Convergent thinking involves aiming for a single, correct solution to a problem, whereas divergent thinking involves creative generation of multiple answers to a set problem.

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Divergent thinking is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in psychology literature. Other researchers have occasionally used the terms flexible thinking or fluid intelligence , which are roughly similar to but not synonymous with creativity. In , Finke et al. Some evidence shows that when people use their imagination to develop new ideas, those ideas are heavily structured in predictable ways by the properties of existing categories and concepts. Helie and Sun [41] recently proposed a unified framework for understanding creativity in problem solving , namely the Explicit—Implicit Interaction EII theory of creativity.

A computational implementation of the theory was developed based on the CLARION cognitive architecture and used to simulate relevant human data. This work represents an initial step in the development of process-based theories of creativity encompassing incubation, insight, and various other related phenomena. In The Act of Creation , Arthur Koestler introduced the concept of bisociation — that creativity arises as a result of the intersection of two quite different frames of reference. In the s, various approaches in cognitive science that dealt with metaphor , analogy , and structure mapping have been converging, and a new integrative approach to the study of creativity in science, art and humor has emerged under the label conceptual blending.

Honing theory, developed principally by psychologist Liane Gabora , posits that creativity arises due to the self-organizing, self-mending nature of a worldview. The creative process is a way in which the individual hones and re-hones an integrated worldview. Honing theory places emphasis not only on the externally visible creative outcome but also the internal cognitive restructuring and repair of the worldview brought about by the creative process.

When faced with a creatively demanding task, there is an interaction between the conception of the task and the worldview. The conception of the task changes through interaction with the worldview, and the worldview changes through interaction with the task. This interaction is reiterated until the task is complete, at which point not only is the task conceived of differently, but the worldview is subtly or drastically transformed as it follows the natural tendency of a worldview to attempt to resolve dissonance and seek internal consistency amongst its components, whether they be ideas, attitudes, or bits of knowledge.

A central feature of honing theory is the notion of a potentiality state. Midway through the creative process one may have made associations between the current task and previous experiences, but not yet disambiguated which aspects of those previous experiences are relevant to the current task. It is at that point that it can be said to be in a potentiality state, because how it will actualize depends on the different internally or externally generated contexts it interacts with.

Honing theory is held to explain certain phenomena not dealt with by other theories of creativity, for example, how different works by the same creator are observed in studies to exhibit a recognizable style or 'voice' even through in different creative outlets. This is not predicted by theories of creativity that emphasize chance processes or the accumulation of expertise, but it is predicted by honing theory, according to which personal style reflects the creator's uniquely structured worldview.

Another example is in the environmental stimulus for creativity. Creativity is commonly considered to be fostered by a supportive, nurturing, trustworthy environment conducive to self-actualization. However, research shows that creativity is also associated with childhood adversity, which would stimulate honing. In everyday thought, people often spontaneously imagine alternatives to reality when they think "if only There was a creativity quotient developed similar to the intelligence quotient IQ.

It makes use of the results of divergent thinking tests see below by processing them further. It gives more weight to ideas that are radically different from other ideas in the response. Guilford 's group, [38] which pioneered the modern psychometric study of creativity, constructed several tests to measure creativity in Such tests, sometimes called Divergent Thinking DT tests have been both supported [50] and criticized. Considerable progress has been made in automated scoring of divergent thinking tests using semantic approach.

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When compared to human raters, NLP techniques were shown to be reliable and valid in scoring the originality. Semantic networks were also used to devise originality scores that yielded significant correlations with socio-personal measures. Kaufman and Mark A. Runco [56] combined expertise in creativity research, natural language processing, computational linguistics, and statistical data analysis to devise a scalable system for computerized automated testing SparcIt Creativity Index Testing system.

This system enabled automated scoring of DT tests that is reliable, objective, and scalable, thus addressing most of the issues of DT tests that had been found and reported. Some researchers have taken a social-personality approach to the measurement of creativity. In these studies, personality traits such as independence of judgement, self-confidence, attraction to complexity, aesthetic orientation, and risk-taking are used as measures of the creativity of individuals. Compared to non-artists, artists tend to have higher levels of openness to experience and lower levels of conscientiousness, while scientists are more open to experience, conscientious , and higher in the confidence-dominance facets of extraversion compared to non-scientists.

An alternative are biographical methods. These methods use quantitative characteristics such as the number of publications, patents, or performances of a work.

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While this method was originally developed for highly creative personalities, today it is also available as self-report questionnaires supplemented with frequent, less outstanding creative behaviors such as writing a short story or creating your own recipes. For example, the Creative Achievement Questionnaire , a self-report test that measures creative achievement across 10 domains, was described in and shown to be reliable and valid when compared to other measures of creativity and to independent evaluation of creative output.

It is the self-report questionnaire most frequently used in research. This joint focus highlights both the theoretical and practical importance of the relationship: There are multiple theories accounting for their relationship, with the 3 main theories as follows:. A number of researchers include creativity, either explicitly or implicitly, as a key component of intelligence. This possible relationship concerns creativity and intelligence as distinct, but intersecting constructs. In support of the TT, Barron [66] [87] reported finding a non-significant correlation between creativity and intelligence in a gifted sample; and a significant correlation in a non-gifted sample.

Much modern day research reports findings against TT. Under this view, researchers posit that there are no differences in the mechanisms underlying creativity in those used in normal problem solving; and in normal problem solving, there is no need for creativity. Thus, creativity and Intelligence problem solving are the same thing. The problem can only be solved if the lines go outside the boundaries of the square of dots. Results demonstrated that even when participants were given this insight, they still found it difficult to solve the problem, thus showing that to successfully complete the task it is not just insight or creativity that is required.

Getzels and Jackson [65] administered 5 creativity measures to a group of children from grades , and compared these test findings to results from previously administered by the school IQ tests. The high intelligence group scored the opposite: However, this work has been heavily criticised.

Wallach and Kogan [67] highlighted that the creativity measures were not only weakly related to one another to the extent that they were no more related to one another than they were with IQ , but they seemed to also draw upon non-creative skills. McNemar [97] noted that there were major measurement issues, in that the IQ scores were a mixture from 3 different IQ tests.

Wallach and Kogan [67] administered 5 measures of creativity, each of which resulted in a score for originality and fluency; and 10 measures of general intelligence to 5th grade children. These tests were untimed, and given in a game-like manner aiming to facilitate creativity. The neuroscience of creativity looks at the operation of the brain during creative behaviour. It has been addressed [98] in the article "Creative Innovation: Thus, the frontal lobe appears to be the part of the cortex that is most important for creativity.

This article also explored the links between creativity and sleep, mood and addiction disorders , and depression. In , Alice Flaherty presented a three-factor model of the creative drive. Drawing from evidence in brain imaging, drug studies and lesion analysis, she described the creative drive as resulting from an interaction of the frontal lobes, the temporal lobes , and dopamine from the limbic system.

The frontal lobes can be seen as responsible for idea generation, and the temporal lobes for idea editing and evaluation. Abnormalities in the frontal lobe such as depression or anxiety generally decrease creativity, while abnormalities in the temporal lobe often increase creativity. High activity in the temporal lobe typically inhibits activity in the frontal lobe, and vice versa. High dopamine levels increase general arousal and goal directed behaviors and reduce latent inhibition , and all three effects increase the drive to generate ideas.

Vandervert [] described how the brain's frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation. Vandervert's explanation rests on considerable evidence that all processes of working memory responsible for processing all thought [] are adaptively modeled for increased efficiency by the cerebellum. The cerebellum's adaptive models of working memory processing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe working memory control processes [] where creative and innovative thoughts arise.

These new levels of the control architecture are fed forward to the frontal lobes. Since the cerebellum adaptively models all movement and all levels of thought and emotion, [] Vandervert's approach helps explain creativity and innovation in sports, art, music, the design of video games, technology, mathematics, the child prodigy , and thought in general. Essentially, Vandervert has argued that when a person is confronted with a challenging new situation, visual-spatial working memory and speech-related working memory are decomposed and re-composed fractionated by the cerebellum and then blended in the cerebral cortex in an attempt to deal with the new situation.

With repeated attempts to deal with challenging situations, the cerebro-cerebellar blending process continues to optimize the efficiency of how working memory deals with the situation or problem. Further, Vandervert and Vandervert-Weathers believe that this repetitive "mental prototyping" or mental rehearsal involving the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex explains the success of the self-driven, individualized patterning of repetitions initiated by the teaching methods of the Khan Academy. The model proposed by Vandervert has, however, received incisive critique from several authors.

Creativity involves the forming of associative elements into new combinations that are useful or meet some requirement. Sleep aids this process. It is proposed that REM sleep adds creativity by allowing "neocortical structures to reorganize associative hierarchies, in which information from the hippocampus would be reinterpreted in relation to previous semantic representations or nodes. Some theories suggest that creativity may be particularly susceptible to affective influence. As noted in voting behavior , the term "affect" in this context can refer to liking or disliking key aspects of the subject in question.

This work largely follows from findings in psychology regarding the ways in which affective states are involved in human judgment and decision-making. According to Alice Isen , positive affect has three primary effects on cognitive activity:. Barbara Fredrickson in her broaden-and-build model suggests that positive emotions such as joy and love broaden a person's available repertoire of cognitions and actions, thus enhancing creativity.

According to these researchers, positive emotions increase the number of cognitive elements available for association attention scope and the number of elements that are relevant to the problem cognitive scope. Various meta-analyses, such as Baas et al. Consider an agent able to manipulate its environment and thus its own sensory inputs. The agent can use a black box optimization method such as reinforcement learning to learn through informed trial and error sequences of actions that maximize the expected sum of its future reward signals.

There are extrinsic reward signals for achieving externally given goals, such as finding food when hungry. But Schmidhuber's objective function to be maximized also includes an additional, intrinsic term to model "wow-effects. A wow-effect is formally defined as follows. As the agent is creating and predicting and encoding the continually growing history of actions and sensory inputs, it keeps improving the predictor or encoder, which can be implemented as an artificial neural network or some other machine learning device that can exploit regularities in the data to improve its performance over time.

The improvements can be measured precisely, by computing the difference in computational costs storage size, number of required synapses, errors, time needed to encode new observations before and after learning. This difference depends on the encoder's present subjective knowledge, which changes over time, but the theory formally takes this into account. The cost difference measures the strength of the present "wow-effect" due to sudden improvements in data compression or computational speed.

It becomes an intrinsic reward signal for the action selector. The objective function thus motivates the action optimizer to create action sequences causing more wow-effects. Irregular, random data or noise do not permit any wow-effects or learning progress, and thus are "boring" by nature providing no reward. Already known and predictable regularities also are boring. Temporarily interesting are only the initially unknown, novel, regular patterns in both actions and observations.

This motivates the agent to perform continual, open-ended, active, creative exploration. According to Schmidhuber, his objective function explains the activities of scientists, artists, and comedians. Likewise, composers receive intrinsic reward for creating non-arbitrary melodies with unexpected but regular harmonies that permit wow-effects through data compression improvements. Similarly, a comedian gets intrinsic reward for "inventing a novel joke with an unexpected punch line , related to the beginning of the story in an initially unexpected but quickly learnable way that also allows for better compression of the perceived data.

A study by psychologist J. Philippe Rushton found creativity to correlate with intelligence and psychoticism. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex , schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their right prefrontal cortex. In agreement with this hypothesis, ambidexterity is also associated with schizotypal and schizophrenic individuals.

Three recent studies by Mark Batey and Adrian Furnham have demonstrated the relationships between schizotypal [] [] and hypomanic personality [] and several different measures of creativity. Particularly strong links have been identified between creativity and mood disorders , particularly manic-depressive disorder a. In Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament , Kay Redfield Jamison summarizes studies of mood-disorder rates in writers , poets , and artists.

She also explores research that identifies mood disorders in such famous writers and artists as Ernest Hemingway who shot himself after electroconvulsive treatment , Virginia Woolf who drowned herself when she felt a depressive episode coming on , composer Robert Schumann who died in a mental institution , and even the famed visual artist Michelangelo.

A different case study suggested for Schumann a difference between bipolar disorder and "creative bipolarity".

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A study looking at , persons with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or unipolar depression, and their relatives, found overrepresentation in creative professions for those with bipolar disorder as well as for undiagnosed siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There was no overall overrepresentation, but overrepresentation for artistic occupations, among those diagnosed with schizophrenia.

There was no association for those with unipolar depression or their relatives. Another study involving more than one million people, conducted by Swedish researchers at the Karolinska Institute, reported a number of correlations between creative occupations and mental illnesses. Writers had a higher risk of anxiety and bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, unipolar depression, and substance abuse, and were almost twice as likely as the general population to kill themselves.

Dancers and photographers were also more likely to have bipolar disorder. However, as a group, those in the creative professions were no more likely to suffer from psychiatric disorders than other people, although they were more likely to have a close relative with a disorder, including anorexia and, to some extent, autism, the Journal of Psychiatric Research reports.

According to psychologist Robert Epstein, PhD, creativity can be obstructed through stress. That question can lead to the deeper discussion of what defines art. She then demonstrates this by looking at 6 video games in her talk given at the TEDxRiodelaPlata conference. The stunning bamboo home is in the rainforests of Costa Rica. One of the most popular shows on television in Spain is Ministerio del Tiempo.

The premise of the show is that within Spanish government, there's a Minister of Time, who protects the doors of time travel so that no one can change history. The producer of the show, Javier Olivares, appears at TEDxMadrid about how weaving the story of Spain within a good drama can make people fall in love with their country again.

How can creativity impact your life? Our creativity is shown through 6 dimensions: As the founder of emergegap, a business consulting firm, he discovered that conversations have the power to transform companies. Conversations also have the power to transform relationships within companies, from executives to lower-level employees. The trust that's built from conversations leads to powerful collaborations.

How are the heart and brain connected? The answer to this question by surprise you.

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Argentine neurologist Luciano Sposato is one of the leading experts on this subject. In this talk from TEDxRiodelaPlata, he talks about the heart and mind are connected and the impact that connection has on our lives.

This connection affects everything from decision-making to how we experience events like the World Cup. Essentially, when the heart breaks from stress or loss, the brain is impacted and vice versa.