Leistungsmessung und -bewertung in der Schule (German Edition)

Das Buch beinhaltet zudem Konzepte zur methodischen Umsetzung von Medienkompetenzforderung. Abschliessend zeigt eine Analyse die Inhalte und Uberlegungen zur Medienkompetenz und Medienkompetenzforderung im osterreichischen Medienerlass und in den osterreichischen Lehrplanen der SekundarstufImmer wieder werden von Lehrern Klagen laut Uber den Larm in Klassenraumen. Die Klagen konnen in zwei Gruppen einge- teilt werden. Einmal beschreiben Lehrer die Wirkungen des Larms auf sich selbst. Hierbei wird vorausgesetzt, daS die Gerauschkulisse in der Klasse den SchUler stort oder zumindest in nicht unterrichtsfordernder Jeise beeinfluSt.

Diese Frage ist aber bisher nicht ab- schlieSend geklart. Mathematische Aufgaben werden jedoch unter Larm schlechter gelost. Einer may refer to: This is a redirect from a title with another method of capitalisation. It leads to the title in accordance with the Wikipedia naming conventions for capitalisation, or it leads to a title that is associated in some way with the conventional capitalisation of this redirect title. This may help writing, searching and international language issues. Miscapitalisations can be tagged in any namespace. Der or DER may refer to: English usually refers to: English people English language English may also refer to: Christoph is a male given name and surname.

It is a German variant of Christopher. Special Gift Cards More brands, more ways to shop. Check out these ideal gifts! Keep in touch Download Our app: Sign up for email. Further evidence comes from students attending gifted programs, who exhibited lower physical and social SCs than non-identified gifted adolescents, which suggests a perceived incompatibility between academic SC and the other two, assuming that academic achievement becomes more salient for students attending a gifted program e. However, this relationship clearly requires more research.

High self-esteem depends on high SC; yet the extent to which each facet contributes to self-esteem may vary. We have sketched the theoretical mechanisms in the previous paragraph; in the following, we will briefly outline empirical findings on differences in SCs and self-esteem, differentiated by gender and achievement tracks, as this will be the focus of our analyses to come. Considering the developmental tasks of adolescence, all three facets—academic, physical, and social SC—can be expected to make important contributions to self-esteem. Earlier findings suggested a strong influence of appearance SC, which is understandable given the salience of bodily changes in the context of developmental tasks e.

Meta-analytic results reveal absolute gender differences in all self-related constructs. Boys score higher than girls in self-esteem reviews by Robins et al. For body esteem, medium effects were observed, with a trend toward increasing differences Feingold and Mazzella, Furthermore, high-achieving girls still struggle to integrate success into their feminine self-image Skelton et al. While academic SC depends on individual achievement and vice versa, as described in the reciprocal effects model e.

Usually, frame-of-reference effects are observed at the classroom level. However, they may also extend to the overall track especially considering the stigma attached to attending the lowest secondary or even the special education tracks; Whitley, ; Knigge, Though solid evidence on the relative contributions of individual ability, classroom, and track to SC is yet lacking, some evidence comes from giftedness research, where ability grouping is used to foster individual development. Higher intelligence increases the likelihood for high achievement, which influences academic SC in turn.

Meta-analytic findings show that the overall higher self-esteem of gifted achievers is largely due to their higher academic SC Hoge and Renzulli, As indicated above, ability grouping of gifted students affects their academic SC negatively when groups have been newly formed. Findings on social SC are mixed: Some studies found no effects on parent or peer SC Marsh et al. There is even less evidence for differences in physical or appearance SC: In contrast, Brounstein et al.

In sum, the questions how the different SCs are interrelated, what role achievement level plays in the process, and whether compensatory mechanisms between the different SCs are at work are still far from explored. Developmental tasks are driven by biological changes and changing expectations of society resulting from them.

Adolescents, who find themselves at the transition between childhood and adulthood, need to accomplish several developmental tasks that relate to the three domains outlined above. School is an important developmental context where adolescents are confronted with these developmental tasks, yet to different extents.

Cognitive learning goals are still considered the most important outcomes of school, and although social-emotional learning outcomes have gained some importance see Shavelson et al.

In the following, we will outline in how far SC and self-esteem are important in the school curriculum and then extend our perspective toward those societal changes that we consider most important with respect to the Triad of Unhappiness, with a focus on Germany, where the present study was conducted. Schools as places of learning have focused on cognitive learning goals and achievement for the most of history, which is one likely reason why SC research which is mostly conducted in schools has focused so strongly on academic SC.

Academic SC and achievement mutually influence each other e. This is especially important in primary school, when children encounter systematic achievement-based comparisons for the first time and where teachers grade leniently if at all in order not to discourage children too early. This cannot be stated for appearance SC, which plays hardly any role in the German school system. Physical education PE is about the only subject taught at all school types that might bear a relation to appearance SC.

This is obvious for its components endurance, balance, flexibility, static strength, and explosive strength, but indirectly also for appearance see Marsh and Redmayne, , for an examination of the multidimensional physical SC , as physical activity supports the athletic, low body fat appearance representing the current beauty ideal. However, PE is usually one of the first subjects that is dropped when resources are scarce, underlining its low status as a non-academic subject Marshal and Hardman, If body-related issues are addressed at all, this rather happens in terms of healthy nutrition or exercise.

It is surprising that even the curricula of highly specialized subjects like Sports, Health, and Social Policy a subject taught at intermediate secondary schools in all federal states examined in the present study; Ministry of Education, Research, and Cultural Affairs of Schleswig-Holstein, ; Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs of Lower Saxony, , ; Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, School and Vocation Office, a , b do not even mention appearance or appearance SC. We therefore conclude that appearance SC plays no role whatsoever in the German school curriculum, and that, consequently, systematic school-based interventions to increase appearance SC are lacking.

In contrast, social—emotional development is gaining importance. Team-working abilities play a particular role here. However, as described above for appearance SC, enhancing social SCs is not a curricular goal in itself. In the context of socio-emotional development as well, self-esteem as an emotional learning goal is nowadays considered an important outcome, too: High self-esteem is related to positive beliefs students hold about themselves and thus to their wellbeing see Baumeister et al.

In the school context, self-esteem is particularly important when it comes to failure a necessary side effect of learning. McFarlin and Blascovich found that emerging adults form their expectations about future performance based on their chronic self-esteem rather than based on current performance feedback, which underlines the importance of high self-esteem.

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That academic achievement is one ultimate goal of school does not come as a surprise, as education is an important resource in times of economic uncertainty. This uncertainty results in competition for the highest possible qualifications and fear of being left behind. Consequently, more students than ever attend the highest achievement tracks and enter tertiary education.

Between and , the number of people entering tertiary education has increased from , to , Federal Bureau of Statistics, b. Depending on the German federal state one lives in, students take 8 or 9 years to complete the highest secondary school degree. In states where the G8 has remained, the majority of students are thus facing extreme pressure to achieve. Those struggling with demands exceeding their ability level often benefit from private tutoring, which has become a large economic factor. Schneider points out that, interestingly, the target group for private tutoring is by far not limited to weak students, but also includes strong students who want to become even better, corroborating the assumption that competition is getting tougher.

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Eventually, this may exacerbate educational disparities for families who cannot afford private lessons. As actual figures depend on the operationalization of tutoring, it is difficult to compare studies over time and thus to pinpoint trends. Yet with the importance of higher degrees and the increasing percentage of students attending higher tracks, it is likely that those parents who can afford it will try to help their offspring achieve at the highest possible level.

In sum, we are observing a trend toward higher formal qualifications and an early career focus, along with an increasing pressure to achieve. We are surrounded by beautiful people—at least if we believe the media, which portray good-looking and usually heavily photoshopped individuals regardless of the product being advertised. The number of advertisements US-Americans have the chance to see or hear during that time has grown from to , and the number of advertisements that actually grasped their attention for at least a few seconds has increased from to during the same time span Media Dynamics Inc, This amounts to about ten consciously perceived ads per waking hour on average.

Appearance and products and services related to it are an important economic factor. In Germany alone, the volume of sales for decorative cosmetics has risen from 1. This trend is evident in men, too. For instance, in a study using comparable samples across an interval of 30 years, women reported more negative attitudes toward their bodies in , compared to no similar differences were found for men; Sondhaus et al.

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The increasing focus on looks affects adolescents, too: A study from the late s showed that those adolescents spending most on their looks are more likely from lower and lower-middle class backgrounds and place much importance on brands, indicating compensatory consumption behaviors; this is especially true for girls Lange, We will get back to this point later.

In sum, we are observing an increasing use of appearance-related products, procedures, and services, which represent an important market segment. The growing prevalence of advertisements and, thus, idealized people in them likely contributes its share to this trend. On average, German children and adolescents work more than With increasing age, academic workload rises to up to 45 hours per week in Grades 9—13, resulting in less time for other activities e.

On average, children and adolescents spend 18 h per week with their families, thus more than with friends up to 12 h per week. This is in line with meta-analytic findings from developmental psychology, which reveal an extension of friendship networks during adolescence and young adulthood Wrzus et al. Besides school-related changes, we observe a tendency toward education-related leisure activities like music lessons or sports.

These findings can be interpreted in line with the increasing focus on an early professional appearance mentioned above. One important change during the last decades is that more and more activities, including social interactions, occur online. Social interactions are the most important activity in online communities. However, social media may also be used for antisocial purposes. It may even cause greater damage, as it happens i anonymously, ii publicly, i. Indirectly, frequent online social media use may thus be related to lower self-esteem in the long run.

Across age groups, respondents surveyed for the 6th Digital Future Report Center for the Digital Future, indicated that the Internet has greatly increased their contact with others, the trend being even more pronounced in than in There is no evidence that the Internet makes people lonely; instead, it may even affect their lives positively Amichai-Hamburger and Hayat, In contrast, for real-life relationships, the representative US General Social Survey GSS reveals that the number of close confidants has decreased from 2.

According to McPherson et al. The latter is confirmed for younger adults and adolescents. Loneliness in college students has decreased rather than increased between and ; similar trends can be observed for high-school students between and meta-analysis by Clark et al. Family and parent relationships are still important for children and adolescents. Our goals were i to provide an up-to-date account of the quality and extent to which different SC facets contribute to student self-esteem, thereby ii identifying possible differences between iia genders and iib types of secondary schools.

These questions were examined based on a large and highly diverse sample comprising 2, students from 5 different secondary school types from the highest track to special education schools, which were assessed using a recently validated measure of SC Weber and Freund, However, girls, who obtain better grades than boys Steinmayr and Spinath, ; see also Duckworth and Seligman, , might be in a conflicting role, as high achievement is still ambivalent with regard to gender roles Skelton et al.

In sum, the influence of academic SC on self-esteem should be rather low overall, but slightly higher for the higher tracks. Gender differences will be examined exploratorily. In line with theoretical conceptions from developmental psychology, current trends in society, and prior empirical findings, we expected appearance SC to affect self-esteem substantially across genders and school types, and more so than any other SC facet.

No track-based differences are hypothesized. Yet regarding gender stereotypes, which are far from overcome, we expect stronger effects for girls than for boys. Positive social relationships can be considered an indicator of social support. As described above, students spend most of their time in and for school. Therefore, we assume, that classmates and teachers are important reference persons for students.

As outlined above, peer and parent support are related to different aspects of SC, but both affect self-esteem. Though Harter did not specify the impact of positive teacher relationships, similar effects as for parents are expected. However, as it is not clear to what extent the effect of school type overrides the effect of the classroom, this question will be examined exploratorily. Conversely, the role of peers should be fairly consistent across school types. Gender effects will be examined exploratorily as well. In Germany, every child must enroll in school by the age of 6 and complete at least 9 years of schooling.

Up to Grade 4, all children attend a comprehensive elementary school in the three states examined. At the secondary school level, students are then separated into different achievement-based school tracks. By the end of Grade 4, parents and teachers evaluate the academic achievement of the children and decide which secondary school track is best suited for the child. Most German federal states offer four types of secondary school: Tracks differ mainly with regard to academic level and curriculum. Students from all ability tracks are included in the present study: Hence, the sample was sufficiently heterogeneous and quite representative with regard to the different school tracks in the German educational system.

The various SC variables were assessed using a German-language questionnaire specifically developed for both lower secondary students from special education schools with an emphasis on learning and from regular school types. The theoretical foundation for its construction and the empirical evidence for reliability and validity of the instrument are presented in Weber and Freund The questionnaire features eight subscales: SC in German e. Appearance SC and self-esteem are represented by four items, whereas the other six subscales are represented by five items each. All items are positively worded.

The 38 items are given as statements. The original German version is available on request from the corresponding author. To minimize social desirability bias or any bias associated with self-reports, students had the additional option do not know considered a missing value if they did not want to answer the question or did not know what to choose.

The survey was conducted in class during school hours by the second author and trained test administrators in groups of 3 special educational school to 26 high-ability track students. Teachers were not present. As the university where the present study was carried out does not provide a standardized IRB approval procedure, we strictly adhered to the recommendations and guidelines of the local educational authorities, which are based on extensive experience with the population in question. Students who had no signed parental consent or did not want to participate left the classroom during the survey.

At the beginning of the survey, students were given an overview of the investigation and were guaranteed both anonymity of their responses and the freedom to drop out of the examination at any time for whatever reason.

All students participated voluntarily. The standardized instructions were read aloud by the test administrators and students were asked to complete the questionnaire. Answering the questionnaire took between 5 and 25 min, with students at special educational schools taking the longest time. Students indicated their gender, date of birth, grade level, and school type. Social SC facets and general academic SC showed none or only very small gender differences.

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To ensure that results are comparable across groups, measurement invariance needs to be ascertained cf. In a first step, we specified an 8-factor model with each subscale of the questionnaire as a separate factor for the total sample. Next, we examined measurement invariance across genders Models 2—5 and across different ability tracks Models 6—9.

Lack of invariance is represented by a decrease of 0. Therefore, measurement invariance across genders and ability tracks can be assured, such that meaningful comparisons among these groups are possible. After measurement invariance was ascertained, the next step was to examine the predictors of self-esteem separately for boys and girls and within each ability track. All analyses were conducted with M plus 7. For both girls and boys, appearance SC was by far the most important predictor of self-esteem girls: For girls, appearance SC was slightly more important.

Results furthermore demonstrate that self-esteem decreases with age in both girls and boys girls: Results of regression analyses predicting self-esteem for the different ability tracks. Parent relations SC significantly predicted self-esteem for students at high-, middle-, mixed- and low-ability tracks, but not for students at special educational schools. Compared to these large effects, the role of academic and social SCs is much smaller. Absolute SC levels were similar across subsamples, indicating frame-of-reference effects.

The predictive power of different SC facets depended on the academic track students attended. Appearance SC was a strong predictor of self-esteem especially for special education students, whereas the self-esteem of students in the highest track did not hinge on their academic SC, suggesting that frame-of reference effects extend across school types, too. Teacher relations affected self-esteem of both genders.

However, looking into the different tracks, only self-esteem of students in the low-ability track were influenced by how well they got along with their teachers. Parent relations contributed to self-esteem in all groups except for special education students. In line with previous findings, SE also decreased with age; we will discuss this finding below. Despite the quality of the sample, data are not representative for all of Germany, much less worldwide; as the education sector is governed by each the federal state individually resulting, strictly speaking, in 16 different German education systems , this may limit the generalizability of our findings.

The scales we used have been thoroughly validated Weber and Freund, and comprise a large number of SC facets, thus allowing to assess the construct and its facets in a highly differentiated way. However, the questionnaire we used is based on the scales of the Self Descriptions Questionnaires see Marsh, , for an overview and the theoretical model of Shavelson et al. The advantage of our instrument consists in its economic usability with 38 items, the questionnaire we used is much more economic than the item SDQ II.

However, the PSC scale is limited to self-perceived attractiveness. Including other aspects, e. Marsh, across school types. Adolescence is a period of identity formation; this also includes sexual and gender identity. Still, in absolute terms, both sexes suffer from feeling unattractive. Our finding that the influence is even stronger for girls is in line with most findings on gender differences in imaginary audience, though there are contradicting results as well see Galanaki, , for an overview.

However, the imaginary audience does not explain the age-related decline in self-esteem. As they are negatively related to global self-esteem, an age-related increase in self-esteem should be expected.