Animal Peculiarity Volume 2 Part 1

Aleian repeatedly affirms his belief in the gods and in divine providence; the wisdom and beneficence of Nature are held up to veneration; the folly and selfishness of man are contrasted with the untaught virtues of the animal world. Some animals, to be sure, have their failings, but he chooses rather to dwell upon their good qualities, devotion, courage, self-sacrifice, gratitude. Again, animals are guided by reason, and from them we may learn contentment, control of the passions, and calm in the face of death.

His primary object is to entertain and while so doing to convey instruction in the most agreeable form. Some might find fault with his random and piece-meal handling of his theme-of which he is well aware, and he defends himself with the plea that a frequent change of topic helps to maintain the reader's interest and saves him from boredom. As to the permanent value of his work he has no misgivings and since we have been informed that his writings were much admired, we may assume that they appealed to cultivated circles in a way that the voluminous and possibly arid compilations of grammarians did not.

Now I am well aware of the labour that others have expended on this subject, yet I have collected all the materials that I could; I have clothed them in untechnical language, and am persuaded that my achievement is a treasure far from negligible. So if anyone considers them profitable, let him make use of them; anyone who does not consider them so may give them to his father to keep and attend to. Toon meer Toon minder.

Overige kenmerken Extra groot lettertype Nee. Reviews Schrijf een review. In winkelwagen Op verlanglijstje. It is distinguished from other world regions by a set of common cultural traits that include language, religion, social values, and civic institutions deriving principally from the Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese are predominant languages. Catholicism is practiced by a vast majority of the region's inhabitants, and social customs and civic institutions bear many similarities to those in Spain.

Nevertheless, the region is not culturally monolithic. Indigenous cultures and peoples have influenced national and subnational cultures within region, affecting language, religion, music, food habits, social customs, and civic institutions. The descendents of African slaves have also influenced the region's culture, although their effects have been most pronounced in Brazil, the Caribbean, and coastal areas of Central and northern South America.

The cultural impact of other immigrants, including those from Italy, Asia, the Middle East, and even a few from North America has been minor[ 46 ]. In order to examine the diversity of animals used in traditional medicine in Latin America, all available references or reports of folk remedies based on animal sources were examined [ 4 , 7 - 11 , 29 - 31 , 36 , 38 , 40 , 42 , 62 - ]. Information was gathered from published articles, books and book chapters, theses and dissertations, undergraduate theses, as well as from reports, and abstracts available at international online databases such as Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar and journals' web sites.

The resulting database encompassed information on species, family names, and conditions to which remedies are prescribed. Only taxa that could be identified to species level were included in the database. These studies have demonstrated the importance of zootherapy to both urban and rural populations. This is not surprising, considering the rich biological resources and cultural of the region, that generated invaluable local knowledge systems that include extensive information on animal uses in general and medicinally useful species, in particular. The high number of animals used as medicine is not surprising given the important role played by wildlife as a source of medicines in different parts of the world.

Nevertheless, the number is certainly underestimated since the amount of studies on the theme are very limited. It is self-evident that there is an urgent need for more studies into zootherapeutic practices in the region. The species catalogued comprised 13 taxonomic categories, belonging to families. The groups with the largest numbers of medicinal species were: Most medicinal animals recorded are vertebrates. Species of this group are also used frequently at countries of Europe, Africa and Asia countries[ 16 , 27 , 33 , 34 , 37 , 39 , - ].

Number of animal species used as remedies per taxonomic category in Latin America. Examples of animals used as medicine in Latin America. Chelonoidis carbonaria , B: Most animals used as medicine were native to the Latin America, with the exception of Hippocampus spinosissimus, H. Bos taurus, Capra hircus and Ovis aries.

This finding demonstrates the importance of local biodiversity in furnishing folk medicines, in agreement with previous studies [ 7 , 8 , 42 ] which observed that faunal composition, accessibility, and availability directly influence the types of zootherapeutic items used in any given region. The use of the local fauna generally reduces the acquisition costs of commercial agents, and our results are in agreement with Apaza et al.

One excellent example are the seahorses. According to Baum and Vincent [ 79 ], the largest market for dried seahorses in Central America was for use as Traditional Chinese Medicine. These authors reported that three retailers in Panama City's Chinatown imported an estimated total of kg dried seahorses annually from Hong Kong. Some widespread species are used in different countries, such as Tupinambis spp.

Despite the fact that technical studies recording the use of animals in traditional medicine are all relatively recent, an analysis of historical documents and archaeological research indicated that animals have been used in traditional medicines since ancient times in Latin America [ 36 , 99 , - , ]. In Brazil, for example, animal species have been used medicinally by indigenous societies for millennia.

During his voyage through the interior of Brazil in the nineteenth century, Von Martius [ ] recorded many natural medicines used by the Amerindian tribes he encountered, such as fresh caiman fat applied to alleviate rheumatism [ ]. Even today, caiman fat Cayman latirostris, Melanosuchus niger and Paleosuchus palpebrosus is used in rural and urban communities to treat rheumatism [ 8 ]. Some examples of animals that have been used in Brazil since colonial times include: Iguana iguana Iguanidae , Caiman latirostris , Crotalus durissus , and Micrurus ibiboboca.

Similarly, a historical revision of the therapeutic uses of animals as described in Colonial chronicles from Mexico [ 99 ] revealed a total of 27 birds used as medicinal resource, showing their importance on this issue for the Ancient Mexican people. A single illness could be treated by various animal species e. The reported multiple therapeutic actions and the use of various animals for the same condition presumes different properties either of parts used or of modes of preparation, corroborating the remark by Iwu [ ] that different chemical constituents are enhanced by different factors, such as preparation, dosage, or part used.

Additionally, the possibility of using various remedies for the same ailment is popular because it permits adapting to the availability of the animals [ 7 ]. The fact that some medicinal animals are being used for the same purpose suggest that different species can share similar medicinal properties and might indicate the pharmacological effectiveness of these zootherapeutic remedies.

Zootherapeutic products are consumed in several ways. Hard parts, such as teeth, nails, shells, rattles from snakes, fish scales, bone and cartilage generally are sun-dried, grated and crushed to powder, being then administered as tea or taken during meals, while fat, body secretion and oil are either ingested or used as an ointment.

The influence of Westernization was also reflected in the presentation of some zootherapeutic products, which were either manufactured or pre-packaged. Examples are the fat extracted from the manatee Trichecus sp. Examples of animal products used as remedies in Latin America Brazil.

Medicinal animal products sold in Brazilian cities. A - Dried seahorses, B - Soap is produced from fat of turtle P. Oyster powder Crassostrea rhizophorae , fats of different animals prompt to be commercialized right in big pots of plastic and in small flasks. In many cases, the therapeutic use of animal remedies appears to be based on morphological or behavioral peculiarities of the animal in question. Descola [ ] has recorded a similar remedy among the Achuar Jivaro of the Ecuadorian Amazon and provides an enlightening account of its probable origin: This anatomical peculiarity has made a forceful impression upon the imagination of the Indians, and the men make the most of it, grating the bone into a decoction of green tobacco to make a love philtre.

Quaffed at the right moment, it is reputed to prevent any flagging of the male member. For example, the products produced from U. There is an association between the biological characteristics of a lizard and the effects its use is expected to generate [ ]. This observation is similar to that of Radbill [ ] who pointed out that in homeopathic or imitative magic, it is assumed that certain qualities attributed to animals can be transferred to humans, and that this transfer can occur by inhalation, ingestion or application of the body parts of those animals.

It is worth mentioning that such "natural modeling" does not necessarily preclude empirical efficacy. Both animals are characterized by odd reproductive habits: Nine-banded armadillos regularly give birth to litters of identical quadruplets, and the opossum produces 10 to 20 offspring per year no doubt owing to its day gestation period, one of the shortest in the animal kingdom [ ].

While these reproductive anomalies undoubtedly influenced their therapeutic use, the tail of the Virginia opossum has demonstrated uterotonic action in recent laboratory and clinical trials. This action probably derives from the presence of prostaglandins, which are known to be oxytocic in very small doses [ ]. Some diseases affect both animals and humans and can be treated with similar remedies. This way, some animals are used in ethnoveterinary medicine and are also used for the treatment of human diseases.

This view of ethnomedicinal symbioses was highlighted by McCorkle and Martin [ ], who noted that nearly all the ways in which ethnopharmaceuticals are administered both externally and internally are shared in animal and human treatments. Souto et al [ 62 ] recorded that local residents in the semi-arid region of Brazil administer zootherapeutic medicines topically powders, ointment of fats, and others , or orally to their livestock and pets in a manner very similar to human Complementary Alternative Medicine practices.

The main techniques of preparing and administering animal-based remedies in local traditional medicine systems are commonly reported in Complementary and Alternative Medicinal practices in most parts of Brazil [ 7 - 9 , 31 , ]. The close relationships between ethnoveterinary and human ethnomedicines can be easily explained from this perspective, as the main stock animals e. Historically, traditional cultures recognized the importance of belief and expectancy within the healing encounter and created complex rituals and ceremonies designed to elicit or foster the expectancy and participation of healer and patient, as well as the community as a whole.

Animal Peculiarity Volume 2 Part 5

Spiritual healing techniques have been a fundamental component of the healing rituals of virtually all societies since the advent of man [ , ]. Folk-illnesses exist within the cultures that create them, "etiology, diagnosis, preventive measures and regimens of healing" [ ] being provided by the culture. Cultural issues are recognized as important components of the provision of effective health care [ ].

As noted by Straker [ ], the supernatural world is as relevant in the diagnosis of illness as the natural world, with the main causes of illness being magical, mystical and animistic forces. Maher [ ] showed that Aboriginal people have categorized illness as natural, environmental, direct supernatural, indirect supernatural and emergent or western causes. Furthermore, for many illnesses deriving from relations with the supernatural, modern medicine is considered ineffective[ ].

Besides their role in healing, natural products often have magical-religious significance, reflecting the different views of health and disease that exist within different cultures. Popular beliefs usually affect the way species are used in zootherapy [ 7 , 8 , 29 , , ]. One form of spiritual treatment involves the use of amulets containing reptile parts to protect the user from the "evil-eye" or from diseases.

An example is caiman teeth C. The influence of magical beliefs integrated into traditional medicine is apparent [ 8 ]. In Brazil, for example, different animal species are used in magical-religious practices of Afro-Brazilian cults [ 29 , 65 , , , ] in the context of rituals that emphasize the holistic nature of traditional medicine and that are designed to address spiritual, physical, and social-psychological problems [ 42 ].

Because medical systems are organized as cultural systems, the use of animal substances should be understood according to a cultural perspective [ 64 ]. In addition to the belief systems, socioeconomic aspects also influence zootherapeutic practices [ 8 ]. Latin America has one of the greatest disparities in income distribution in the world. Overall, the health profile of the Latin American population can be classified as undergoing a slow epidemiological transition.

At one extreme of the spectrum there is a high incidence of and mortality from chronic noninfectious diseases such as cardiovascular problems and cancer, which predominate in large metropolitan areas. On the other hand, infectious diseases still impose a heavy burden on the poverty-stricken parts of the population. The reasons for this dichotomy are two-fold: Studies suggest that Indigenous peoples of Latin America still have inadequate access to mainstream health services, and health prevention and promotion programmes, and that services that do exist are often culturally inappropriate [ , ].

The traditional medicine is widely available and affordable, yet in remote areas, and generally accessible to most people. In many developing countries, a large part of the population, especially in rural areas, depends mainly on traditional medicine for their primary health care, because it is cheaper and more accessible than orthodox medicine [ 8 ]. Traditional medicine is also more acceptable because it blends readily into the peoples' socio-cultural belief system [ - ].

Hence, resorting to the use of medicinal animals and plants, which were easily accessible and relatively cheap is an important component to healthcare in these gettings [ 8 ]. Traditional drugs and traditional medicine in general represent a still poorly explored field of research in terms of therapeutic potential or clinical evaluation. There is a current preoccupation about this, since it is well-established that all sorts of vegetable, animal and mineral remedies used in a traditional setting are capable of producing serious adverse reactions. De Smet [ ] draws attention to the fact that some side-effects of traditional medicines have proven to be more severe than the disease that they are treating.

Such considerations must be taken into account, further highlighting the need for clinical studies of traditional remedies. Numerous infectious diseases can be transmitted from animals to humans [ ]. Zoonoses constitute other animal health problems that affect public health. These represent an important threat for the welfare of human populations. In the urban and rural areas of the countries under development, zoonoses continue to present high frequencies [ ].

In this context, the possibility of transmitting infections or ailments from animal preparations to the patient should be seriously considered [ ]. Several organs and tissues including bones and bile can be a source of Salmonella infection causing chronic diarrhoea and endotoxic shock. The possibility of transmission of other serious and widespread zoonoses such as tuberculosis or rabies should be considered whenever animal tissues from unknown sources are handled and used as remedies [ ]. Several species of animals have become a favorite target of hunters because its bones, organs and tissues are used in traditional medicine [ , ].

Indeed, numerous species of animals are hunted poached rather for their meat than for their supposed medical use [ , ]. Nevertheless, there is often an overlap between the two purposes, and transmission of disease can occur in both instances. One excellent example of this regards the primates [ ]. Several species of monkeys have been identified as harboring infectious diseases transmissible to man with potentially grave consequences [ , ]. The related risks can be illustrated by a recent case from a Safari Park in Great Britain, where a colony of otherwise clinically healthy Macaque monkeys had to be humanely destroyed once it had been discovered that the monkeys harbored the simian herpes B virus [ ].

Certain researchers seriously consider the hypothesis that the worldwide epidemic of the HIV virus causing the AIDS infection in humans might have been initiated by transmission of a virus from monkeys several decades earlier [ ]. As pointed out by Pieroni et al. However, research with therapeutic purposes into the products of the animal kingdom has been neglected until recently [ 25 , ]. In comparison to research done on plant drugs, modern pharmacology has done far fewer studies on animal products and minerals [ ].

Historically, traditional use of plants as medicines has been extensively recognized, studied, and reviewed. However, such attention has not been paid to the potential of animals as a source of medicinally relevant substances. A excellent example of this potential is provided by insects.

Trowell [ ] points out that there are at least 16 times as many insect species as there are plant species, yet plant chemistry has been studied times as much as insect chemistry when comparing the amount of research per species. Nonetheless, the vast biodiversity which exists in the arthropod world, compared to all other organisms on earth, certainly suggests that arthropods should be given a more serious look [ ]. Nevertheless, in last years, there has been increasing attention paid to animals, both vertebrates and invertebrates, as sources for new medicines [ ]. Various authors have discussed the conservation implications of the use of medicinal products derived from wild animal species [ 16 , 33 , 34 , , ].

In Latin America, as evidenced in the present review, the medicinal fauna is largely based on wild animals, including many endangered species. The use of medicinal animals is common in both rural and urban areas. Biological remedies are openly commercialized in towns and cities, principally in public markets. It is common to find specific places in these markets where plants and animals are sold for medicinal purposes [ 31 , 32 , 38 , 42 , 66 , 67 , , , , , , ]. The commercialization of animals for medicinal purposes is a widespread phenomenon, with significant implications for their conservation and sustainable use [ 1 ].

Previous authors [ - ] have suggested that market expansion induces people to make greater use of wild animals for traditional medicine and that the practice has spread in developed nations of Asia and the Pacific e. But other research suggests that the increasing use of animals for traditional medicine can also take place without economic prosperity.

For example, Kritsky [ ] reported that the use of insects for traditional medicine in China increased during the Cultural Revolution. Based on an ethno-zoological survey of the use of medicinal birds, Joseph [ ] concludes that the use of birds to treat human ailments increased in Madhya Pradesh, Central India, because people could not afford modern treatments.

The worldwide market for animal parts and their medicinal derivatives is contributing to the loss of some species. The increased use of medicinal animals has led to over-exploitation of species like rhinos, tigers, musk deer, bears, monkeys and pangolins.

Animal Peculiarity Volume 2 Part 1 (Paperback)

In spite of international regulations and several national laws against poaching and heavy penalties for culprits, the extremely high prices offered for the parts of some species serve as strong incentives for illegal trade in animal parts to flourish [ 1 , 2 ]. It must be emphasized, however, that many factors affect animal populations in the world, and the use of these animals for medicinal purposes is only part of the problem.

As such, the medicinal use of animals must be considered together with other anthropogenic pressures, such as habitat loss. The depletion of medicinal resources not only poses a challenge for conservation but represents a serious threat to the health of many human communities, and that efforts to stabilize the status of these species are important not only to conservationists but to millions of people whose health depends of the use of traditional remedies [ , , ]. Moura and Marques [ 74 ] pointed that one characteristic in common among all zootherapeutic products, whether whole animals or their parts, is their lack of use for other purposes.

In this sense, it is remarkable that in most cases, the medicinal products of animals are by-products from animals hunted for other purposes; thus, these multiple uses including medicinal of fauna and their impact on animal populations must be properly assessed and taken into consideration when implementing recovery plans for these species, especially those that are highly exploited [ 7 - 9 , 31 , ].

Zootherapy is intertwined with sociocultural and religious beliefs that must be understood by those engaged in modern conservation and protection of biodiversity. Celso [ ] pointed out that natural medicine is one important use of biodiversity. Some traditional medicinal systems, like the Chinese Traditional Medicine, is recognized by the World Health Organization WHO and accepted by one-fourth of the world human population, and the reliance on traditional medicinal uses of animals by communities around the world should be addressed when designing strategies to conserve biodiversity.

Conservation permits the continuing use of the resources in ways that are non-destructive and sustainable, while from the pharmaceutical point of view, it provides time to eventually demonstrate fully the potentially medicinal value of the resources [ ]. Connections between traditional medicine, biodiversity and human health have recently been addressed by different authors [ 1 , 22 , - ]; have drawn attention to the fact that biodiversity loss can have indirect and direct effects on human well-being as well. The reliance on traditional uses of animals as food and as medicine by communities around the world highlights the need for further interdisciplinary research in ethnozoology which can be used in strategies to conserve biodiversity [ 53 , ].

Furthermore, loss of wildlife resources, aside from threatening people's health and well-being, affects their cultural integrity. In Latin America, despite the many individual efforts of the governments to preserve the biodiversity for future generations, traditional knowledge, especially that derived from indigenous knowledge such as Traditional Medicine , is also disappearing [ 45 ]. In this sense, understanding the contexts of traditional therapeutic uses of animals, is central for elucidating their potential impact in public health and biodiversity conservation.

Latin America has a wealth of biological resources and is home to a large number of different ethnic and cultural groups, many of which have developed their own, distinct health care systems. As a result, the region is rich in traditional medicinal knowledge and zootherapy represents an alternative to official medicinal practices in rural areas and has also become part of urban popular medicine.

Our results reveal that at least animals are used for medicinal purposes in Latin America, underlining the importance of zootherapy as alternative therapeutic in region.

Introduction

In a region like Latin America, where the majority of the population has no access allopathic medicine, local medicinal animals and plant knowledge systems is of significance. The population uses traditional medicine due to the relatively low cost and difficult access to modern health facilities. Nevertheless, the interest in and intrinsic value of zootherapy not be only be attributed to the lack of access to modern medicinal services. Even in cities where modern health services are more accessible and specialized; many people continue to go to traditional healers showing the cultural acceptability of such practices.

Threatened species represented important medicinal resources in Latin America. This shows the need to integrate traditional knowledge into strategies to conserve and manage faunistic resources. Sustainability of harvesting of medicinal animals is challenged by many factors, from both social and ecological perspectives. It is important to respect differing views of the value of wildlife, while, at the same time, conserving biodiversity. Using animal products as components of bioprospecting has implications for medicine, the environment, economy, public health and culture. Although widely diffused, zootherapeutic practices remain virtually unstudied, and so far there has been neither a demonstration of the clinical efficacy of the popularly used remedies nor an evaluation of the sanitary implications of the prescription of animal products for the treatment of diseases in the Latin America.

CreateSpace: Self Publishing and Free Distribution for Books, CD, DVD

New studies of medicinal fauna, which seek a better understanding of this form of therapy - including ecological, cultural and pharmacological aspects, are necessary. The authors read and approved the final manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List J Ethnobiol Ethnomed v. Published online Mar 7. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Jan 12; Accepted Mar 7. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Zootherapy is the treatment of human ailments with remedies made from animals and their products.

Introduction Throughout human history, people have used various materials from nature to cure their illnesses and improve their health [ 1 ]. Procedures In order to examine the diversity of animals used in traditional medicine in Latin America, all available references or reports of folk remedies based on animal sources were examined [ 4 , 7 - 11 , 29 - 31 , 36 , 38 , 40 , 42 , 62 - ]. Table 1 Medicinal animals and its respective uses in popular medicine in Latin America. Milne Edwards, - Mangrove crab Epilepsy, to alleviate the symptoms of intoxication with poison of Colomesus psittacus [ 7 , 9 , 11 , 99 , ] Mithracidae Mithrax hispidus J.

Herbst, - coral clinging crab Burns [ ] Portunidae Callinectes bocourti A. Geoffroy, - Bugio Used as aphrodisiac; used to treat any disease [ , ] Alouatta sara Elliot, Unspecified [ 83 , ] Alouatta palliata Gray General pains and inflammation [ , ] Ateles chamek Humboldt, Fever, cough, cold shoulder pain, sleeping problems, leishmaniosis, spider bite, snake bites. Open in a separate window. Cultural beliefs Historically, traditional cultures recognized the importance of belief and expectancy within the healing encounter and created complex rituals and ceremonies designed to elicit or foster the expectancy and participation of healer and patient, as well as the community as a whole.

Socio-economic aspects of zootherapy In addition to the belief systems, socioeconomic aspects also influence zootherapeutic practices [ 8 ]. Health Concerns Traditional drugs and traditional medicine in general represent a still poorly explored field of research in terms of therapeutic potential or clinical evaluation. Environmental Approach Various authors have discussed the conservation implications of the use of medicinal products derived from wild animal species [ 16 , 33 , 34 , , ].

Conclusions Latin America has a wealth of biological resources and is home to a large number of different ethnic and cultural groups, many of which have developed their own, distinct health care systems. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Biodiversity, traditional medicine and public health: Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. Why study the use of animal products in traditional medicines?

Traditional Medicine Strategy Os Animais na Medicina Popular Brasileira. Medicinal and poisonous diversity of the fora of "Cariri Paraibano", Brazil. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalaya. From cnidarians to mammals: The use of animals as remedies in fishing communities in NE Brazil. Zootherapeutic practices among fishing communities in North and Northeast Brazil: Snakes used in ethnomedicine in Northeast Brazil.

Environment, Development and Sustainability. Fauna used in popular medicine in Northeast Brazil. Ethnobotany in the Nepal Himalaya. The plants, rituals and spells that 'cured' helminthiasis in Sicily. Ethnomedicinal plant knowledge and practice of the Oromo ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia. Traditional zootherapeutic studies in India: Therapeutic properties and uses of marine invertebrates in the ancient Greek world and early Byzantium.

Past and future contributions to traditional medicine in the health care system of the Middle-East. Ethnopharmacological survey of traditional drugs sold in the Kingdom of Jordan. Healing with animals in the Levant from the 10th to the 18th cent. Traditional healing with animals zootherapy: Its Importance to Human Health.

Center for Health and the Global Environment. Harvard Medical School; Centre for Development Studies; Medical manuscripts of Azerbaijan. Baku Heydar Aliyev Foundation; A comparative assessment of zootherapeutic remedies from selected areas in Albania, Italy, Spain and Nepal. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. Commercialization and use of snakes in North and Northeastern Brazil: Um estudo de caso. Zootherapy goes to town: The use of animal-based remedies in urban areas of NE and N Brazil. Markets and the use of wild animals for traditional medicine: Ashwell D, Walston N.

An overview of the use and trade of plants and animals in traditional medicine systems in Cambodia. Kang S, Phipps M. A question of attitude: Animal remedies in the folk medicinal practices of the Lucca and Pistoia Provinces, Central Italy; pp. A zooterapia no Recife Pernambuco: Pilot study of the traditional medicine trade in Nigeria. An overview of the use of plants and animals in traditional medicine systems in Viet Nam.

Ha Noi, Viet Nam: Journal of Latin American Lore. Trade of animals used in Brazilian traditional medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health. Katerere RD, Luseba D, editor. Man, Culture and Biodiversity: Twenty-five years of research on medicinal plants in Latin America: New York and London: The Guilford Press; Molluscs in the marine curio and souvenir trade in NE Brazil: A Etnozoologia no Brasil: Environmental perception of gatherers of the crab 'caranguejo-uca' Ucides cordatus, Decapoda, Brachyura affecting their collection attitudes.

Mollusc Gathering in Northeast Brazil: An Urgent Necessity of Interdisciplinary Studies. West Indian Medical Journal. Bird-keeping in the Caatinga, NE Brazil. Hunting of Wildlife in Tropical Forests. Neotropical wildlife use and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago; World Population Highlights Overview of World Population. Implications and applications of folk zootherapy in the state of Bahia, Northeastern Brazil.

Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor. The Open Complementary Medicine Journal. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Os 'bichos' que curam: Branch L, Silva MF. Zooterapia popular na Chapada Diamantina: A zooterapia popular no Estado da Bahia: Vertebrate Conservation and Biodiversity.

Fishers' knowledge and seahorse conservation in Brazil.

Anthropomorphism - Wikipedia

Magnitude and inferred impacts of the seahorse trade in Latin America. Instituto de Ecologia; Primates face to face: Fuentes A, Wolfe L, editor. Cambridge University Press; Primates in Matsigenka subsistence and world view; pp. Prefeitura Municipal de Manaus; Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz; Presencia e importancia de los animales en la medicina tradicional de los grupos otopames. Estudios de Cultura Otopame. Primate Conservation in the Tropical Rain Forest. Marsch CW, Mittermeier R, editor. Effects of hunting on rain forest primates; pp. Insects as folk medicines in the State of Alagoas, Brazil.

Pampas fox Pseudalopex gymnocercus. Primates Face to Face: Fuentes A, Wolfe D, editor. Ethnoecology of monkeys among the Bari of Venezuela: Lenko K, Papavero N. Primates hunting by Guaymi amerindians in Costa Rica. A cultura pesqueira do litoral Norte da Bahia. Cockroach is Good for Asthma: Zootherapeutic Practices in Northeastern Brazil. Zootherapy Based Medicinal Traditions in Brazil. Bolkovic ML, Ramadori D. Manejo de Fauna Silvestre en la Argentina. Programas de uso sustentable.

Los animales usados en la medicina popular mexicana. Acta Sci Biol Sci. Animal-based medicines used in ethnoveterinary practices in the semi-arid region of Northeastern Brazil. Animal-based remedies as complementary medicines in Santa Cruz do Capibaribe, Brazil.

Animals to heal animals: Commercialization of animal-derived remedies as complementary medicine in the semi-arid region of Northeastern Brazil. Commercialization of Uranoscodon superciliosus Linnaeus, Tropiduridae for magical-religious purposes in North and Northeastern of Brazil. An ethnozoological survey of medicinal animals commercialized in the markets of Campina Grande, NE Brazil. A Global overview of canids used in traditional medicines.

Hunting strategies used in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil. The medicinal animal markets in the metropolitan region of Natal City, Northeastern Brazil. Research in Complementary Medicine. Primates in traditional folk medicine: Reptiles used for medicinal and magic religious purposes in Brazil.

Reptiles used in traditional folk medicine: Use and commercialization of Podocnemis expansa Schweiger Testudines: Podocnemididae for medicinal purposes in two communities in North of Brazil. Zootherapy as an alternative therapeutic in South America. Journal of Alternative Medicine Research. Atualidades em Etnobiologia e Etnoecologia. Begossi A, Braga F. Food taboos and folk medicine among fishermen from the Tocantins River. Universidade do Estado do Mato Grosso; Cultura pesqueira, desenvolvimento e sustentabilidade no litoral norte do estado da Bahia: Honey bees from Brazil: Insect cure for ailments.

Termite usage associated with antibiotic therapy: Vallejo P, Aguayo R. Wildlife in the life of local people of the semi-arid Argentine Chaco. Importance of wild animals and their parts in the culture, religious festivals, and traditional medicine, of Nigeria. List of species traded for medicinal purposes. Eighteenth meeting of the animals committee. Handbook of African Medicinal Plants.

The spears of twilight: Child Hygiene Among the Indians. Texas Reports on Biology and Medicine. Editorial Piedra Santa; Ortiz de Montellano BR. Aztec medicine, health and nutrition.

Rutgers University Press; Parallels and potentials in animal and human ethnomedical technique. Agriculture and Human Values. The influence of religiosity on health. Implementing spiritual healing in modern medical practice: Culture, Disease, and Healing: Studies in Medical Anthropology.

Macmillan Publishing Co; The epidemiology of a folk illness: Susto in Hispanic America; pp. Cultural competence in pharmacy practice. Am J Pharm Educ. Integrating African and Western healing practices in South Africa. American journal of psychotherapy. A review of 'traditional'Aboriginal health beliefs. Australian Journal of Rural Health. Traditional pharmacopoeias and medicines among Albanians and Italians in southern Italy: Concepts of illness and curing in a central Nepal village. Contributions to Nepalese Studies.

From Eshu to Obatala: Cambridge, UK and New York: I render services for science don't I? Ethnoveterinary medicines for cattle Bos indicus in Bulamogi county, Uganda: Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa. Spectrum Books Ltda; Differential utilization and ethnobotany of trees in Kitulanghalo forest reserve and surrounding communal lands, eastern Tanzania. Is there any danger in using traditional remedies?