Emerging Digital Spaces in Contemporary Society: Properties of Technology

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Once we acknowledge the political, we confront the fact that all choices made concerning the mediated environment of the twenty- first century are political as well. Yet the headline digital narrative continues to suggest that ICTs mean the end of hierarchy, the ascendance of an open commons for information, and the decline of barriers to information sharing. If this is so, then economic and political power may shift irreversibly to individual information produc- ers and citizens.

Acquiring the new literacies may be relatively less problem- atic for each generational cohort Williamson et al. There is no doubt that there is a prolifera- tion of blogs, SMSs, email lists, and decentralized networks. As more citizens become information producers there is a tendency to assume that the stand- ard diffusion model will run its course so that all citizens eventually will be embraced by an inclusive information age, and included in ways that are to their advantage.

These universalistic claims appear to take little or no account of the diver- sity of societies. If diversity is acknowledged and valued then it follows that it is unlikely that there will be a universal information society. Rather there are diverse mediated environments just as there were diverse instantiations of the industrial age Mansell , Therefore, we need to examine specifically who is being included, on what terms, and, crucially, who is not and what means we have to alter this condition.

A close investigation of whose narratives about ICTs and information societies or knowledge societies are being validated is required. We need investigations of who is participating in decisions about ICT design and deployment with a view to understanding their values so as to reveal the contested political foundations of these developments. Considering these issues in historical and political perspective is very likely to show that, whatever the shifts in power in society accompanying the diffusion of ICTs are, they are partial and temporary.

They do, however, provide us with focal points for a material investigation of the contested practices and values that are embedded within our new mediated forms and structures of control. My purpose is not to set out that body of work in this chapter. The interested reader might start with Castells For research in this tradition see, for example, Attewell , Brancheau and Wetherbe , Carter et al.

See, for example, Lamberton , on the variety of roles that information plays in the economy, Noam on the institutional rules governing the devel- opment of new markets, and Quah on the potential of ICTs for creating digital goods such as digital music and novel software algorithms.

A Report for the Information Commissioner. The Case for Business Computing. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. Civilization and Capitalism 15—18 Century: Internet and Digital Economics: Principles, Methods and Applications. A Framework for Communicating Diffusion Effects. Economy, Society and Culture Volume I: The Rise of the Network Society. The Power of Identity.

Reflections on the Internet, Business and Society. The Practice of Everyday Life. University of California Press. My, Myself and I: Manage Online Identity More Safely. An Examination of Assimilation Gaps. Robin Mansell 23 Freeman, C. Pinter A Cassel Imprint. Coming to Terms with Chance: Engaging Rational Discrimination and Cumulative Disadvantage. Emancipation, the Media and Modernity: Arguments about the Media and Social Theory. The Bias of Communication. University of Toronto Press. The Economics of Information and Knowledge: Understanding Alternative and Activist New Media.

Crime-Control, Citizenship and Social Sorting. The Case of a Complex and Networked Technology. Trust and Crime in Information Societies. The Politics of Information and Communication Technologies, eds. The Politics of Information and Communication Technologies. Mobilizing the Information Society: Strategies for Growth and Opportunity. Information Technology for Sustainable Development. When Old Technologies were New: University of Minnesota Press. Theories of Communication Networks. The Political Economy of Communication. Questions, Issues, and Implications. The Information Economy, Nine Volumes.

Department of Commerce Government Printing Office. Academic Press Elsevier Science. The Diffusion of Innovations. The Diffusion of Innovations fourth edition. Networking the Global Market System. On the Rise of the Mediapolis. The Internet and Society. The Economics of Technological Diffusion. How Many Minds Produce Knowledge. The Wisdom of Crowds: Creating a Prosperous World at Peace. Trends and Outlook in Turbulent Times.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Van den Bulte, C. Robin Mansell 25 Webster, Frank. Theories of the Information Society.

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A Report to Vodafone. Internet usage in other Arab countries did not take off until the mids, and in general the development of the Internet in the Arab region was slow and timid. The major impediments to Internet adoption among Arab countries have been the lack of infrastructure—primarily because of poverty, high illit- eracy rates, the use of non-Latin script leading to the poor quality of Arabic content on the Internet, and the political and religious threats posed by the Internet.

Among the strategies and initiatives to promote the development of e-content, the organizing body of the World Summit on the Information Society WSIS suggested identifying success stories, stimulating competition and rewarding the best content to be set as benchmarks for the industry.

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This was done under the framework of the World Summit Awards WSA ,1 a global competition that aims to identify the best e-content practices and strategies considered as a benchmark for the region. In the context of this study governance is described as encompassing activities that promote e-content, as well as identifying what kind of Internet content needs to be advanced in order to achieve a better information society. Inspired by the WSA competition and results, this case study questions the quality of the outcome under the current governance arrangement Chhotray and Stoker These websites are primarily made up of Pan Arab content, since more than 66 percent of them deal with Pan Arab issues.

Additionally, these websites show a huge deficiency in web properties. First, they lack hypertextuality; for instance they do not offer any hyper- links that serve as pathways to other websites. Second, the interactivity of website-to-user or user-to-user is also absent; 90 percent of the elements coded offer no interactivity at all. This is a passive website model, made for users who can only read the content.

These findings display a similarity to Arab media, mainly before the growth of satellite television market,3 most of which are under the control of the state, and broadcast Arab cultural and religious content to the detriment of serious social, community or politi- cal issues UNDR ; Roy This duplication of Arab media systems and the fact that the selected sites are deprived of the core Internet features of interactivity and hypertextuality Burnett and Marshall make one wonder why the WSA considered them.

When examining the organization of the competition Allagui , one can note the involvement of different layers in the selection process and, most importantly, the selective role of the jury at the national or country level. It is striking to see how conventional, unobtrusive and non-innovative most of these Arab websites are. Knowing how the media in Arab countries are also restrained, and the political restrictions applied to media in Arab countries Hafez , it is no surprise that the jury members had to work within contextual, political and cultural restrictions.

Many other innovative websites exist but do not qualify to enter the competition because they are restricted in access, censored or even self-censored. This implies the existence of a greater power of interference of the state, either directly or indirectly, to control the outcome. It aimed to discuss the Internet, its policies and regulations in order to achieve a better information society. For a full discussion of methodology and results, see Allagui The growth of Arab satellite channels introduced some dynamism and changes to the Arab media market on the political level, with Arab governments adopting TV-friendly modes of conduct Sakr Reproducing or breaking off with Arab media?

Power and Weakness, ed. Governance Theory and Practice: A Cross- Disciplinary Approach.

International Perspectives on Policy and Power, eds. A World of Difference? Beyond Anglophone Paradigms, eds. Journalism Ethics in Arab and Western Journalism. Community, Legitimacy and Public Life, ed. Mass Media, Press Freedom and Publishing. The Case of Gipuzkoa Basque Country Alfonso Unceta The idea of e-participation is emerging as a possibility for redefining the field of politics. We must look to civil society as a construction zone for participa- tory political citizenship; in so doing we will perceive new places and forms of expression that are reorienting the relationship between politics and society Alexander , Warren , Magnette We can foresee new forms of interaction between the representatives and the represented and yet, at the present time, we scarcely have even partial knowledge of these innovative scenarios.

Representation based on a more direct link between the representatives and the represented has been hampered by the increasing role of politi- cal parties, which have taken over the most prominent place in politics. Undoubtedly, this has not only caused a clash of priorities but also altered the way in which the relationship comes about between the representatives and the represented. Furthermore, it is becoming increasingly mediated, uncertain, vague, and distant. In this context, the application of information and communication tech- nologies ICTs is an important element in participatory processes, as these technologies capitalize on many electronic and digital platforms: Most are user friendly and require no special means of operation Norris It is true that electronic participation is still of very limited scope and far from being a commonplace tool for political participation Davis Even so, population centers that are not excessively large are suitable for test-driving participation and e-democracy Tsagarousianou et al.

Given all of the above, making political involvement a reality will require getting beyond the talking stage and exercising focused leadership that favours participatory processes. The provincial government of Gipuzkoa1 is a case in point: In a comparison of the five forums, how they evolved and what they con- tributed to the process, the following should be highlighted: The four working groups conducted 16 meetings with 36 different people in attendance, resulting in a total of 23 hours and 50 minutes of work.

These meetings generated feedback comments and resulted in 19 work documents. Of these visits, 96 percent originated in Spain; of these, 92 percent were direct traffic and 8 percent came through search engines. In the environment we were analysing, at least, the culture of e-participation was not yet sufficiently widespread. The study presented here shows that, in this type of process where both initiative and interest are institutional, in-person participation is still more effective than e-participation in the Basque Country. This may be because traditional forms of interaction such as face-to-face meetings, telephone calls, and even e-mails are still far more prevalent in the culture than new forms of communication—blogs, wikis, forums—among citizens born before the dig- ital era.

This point is exemplified by Wikipedia, where, although articles are added daily, half of the editing work for the English version is completed by 0. The new Web communications tools function when communities of practice exist around them—users who are far apart, geographically, but share a common interest. In these cases, when a user publishes an opinion in a forum or a blog, that user expects immediate responses from the rest of the users.

Thus interac- tions with the government are completely impersonal; perhaps this is why users become skeptical and assume that their opinions will not be heard, that they will fall on deaf ears. Applying e-participation to political processes requires a change in indi- vidual and group behaviour and is still today just a possibility, an idea that has not yet taken hold throughout society. In the absence of a common interest, governments must find an element that political representatives and the represented have in common to bolster the relationship between them, especially in the Basque Country where, just as in the rest of Spain, e-participation indicators are still quite low in compari- son with northern European Union countries.

Gipuzkoa is a territory located in the Basque Country with a population of , It has its own government and parliament, which have a wide range of areas of responsibility. The Web of Politics: Technology, Cities and Civic Networks.

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George-Palilonis and John Belcher As digital learning trends change the way we teach and learn, many educators are experimenting with and developing new tools for content delivery. They not only seek new ways to deliver traditional content via digital means, but they also are developing entirely new digital content to better harness the power of multimedia technology.

This multimedia text is based on a number of 3-D animations, interac- tive applets, and videos focused on six units of electromagnetic theory. The module allows students to visualize concepts invisible to the naked eye and better understand relationships among subtopics. The second was the Ball State Digital Publishing Project DPP , intended to address questions related to the design, development, and distribution of multimedia texts, and explore how storytelling changes when educational content takes digital forms. In spite of their differing backgrounds and fields, the authors have a shared belief in the power of visualization to enhance learning.

Through this text, they hope to help transform how the foundations of electricity and mag- netism are taught, moving from a traditional, equation-based system to a visualization-based multimedia experience. Their work was driven by two main assumptions: The authors believe that classical electromagnetism is an ideal subject for such an approach because it is a fundamental underpinning of a techni- cal education, and one of the most difficult subjects for students to master because mathematical complexity quickly overwhelms physical intuition.

George-Palilonis and John Belcher 33 The traditional instructional approach uses equations to teach the subject and fails to help students establish more conceptual models. However, by adding animations that further illustrate equations, concepts begin to seem natural and intuitive. Both explanations should be provided. The first is quantitative and appeals to students who are analytical thinkers. The second is qualitative, more intuitive, and comprehensible to students of all persuasions, because it can be understood by analogy to concepts they already have.

The authors argue that one year after taking a course in electromagnetism, average students will not remember details of the textual or mathematical approach. However, if they have seen the concepts in action, they will have a mental model that will endure. This collaboration is also a great example of the doors that can open for educators when they step outside the silos that often confine them. It is unlikely that a single person would have expertise in a specific field like physics as well as the technical and design expertise to develop a single mul- timedia text.

Thus collaboration is nearly a necessity. After one face-to-face meeting, this text was developed from a distance. The physicist developed PowerPoint presentations with the storyline, appropriate graphics, and links to visualizations. Then the designer used this as a guide to develop an Adobe Flash-based module with structure and functionality similar to that suggested by the physicist. They then iterated content until they were both satisfied before proceeding to the next topic, and the process converged within a few iterations. No one foresaw this great revolution, not even a few years ago.

At the beginning of this century, when what is known today as Web 1. If it is good on paper, it will be good on the Internet. In , however, this began to change. YouTube, which was very heavily used in the Obama electoral campaign, is seen as a television channel compa- rable to CNN. What happened between and ? Basically, the so-called Web 2. The key feature of Web 2. In other words, Web 2. The online Encyclopedia Britannica, which we can all passively consult Web 1. Naturally, the entry for Madonna, the singer, is likely to be more extensive than the entry for Aristotle, but in this new era knowledge hierarchies are breaking down.

Citizens, including journalists, of course, as well as the great media com- panies, can play a direct role in developing Journalism 2. New terminology has appeared: But, what reality do you choose for reporting what is happening to people? Which reality do people spend the most time in each day: Can a journalist report on alternative realities? Can information be exchanged between one reality and another?

Is a journalist required to do that? From my point of view, Second Life has not suffered the repercussions that cybernetic theorists, in particular, had predicted. Reuters closed its Second Life office in , but it had demon- strated that the world is not what it used to be. Thus, we are going through a period of uncertainty where the old seems to be disappearing but we do not yet know what is to come. A new paradigm One of the most appealing explanations of what has happened in the com- munications media with the emergence of the new technologies, Web 2.

We will introduce this phenomenon by describing a case study that is being very closely analyzed Rosenzweig ; Jenkins ; Lozano In the fall of , following the September 11 attacks in New York, an ordi- nary Filipino—American high school student named Dino Ignacio designed a digital collage using Photoshop.

Bert and his friend Ernie are icons widely known in the West among those who were born after the mids, that is, among the majority of Internet users. Although there is a program modeled on Sesame Street that is televised in Pakistan, the Bert and Ernie characters do not appear in it. The demonstrations were picked up by CNN and broadcast around the world.

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They threatened to take legal action, but CNN argued that it was only broadcasting newsworthy images of reality, and those demonstrations with the paired images of Bert and Bin Laden were reality. What had begun as a joke on his website became a news item. Later, it turned into an international and business crisis reported in the traditional media and, primarily, the digital media.

This is the world of convergence culture where traditional communication schemes such as the Jakobson sender—message—receiver model are radically distorted. It is a world where mass culture becomes high culture and high culture, scientific results, for example, becomes mass culture. Is this an isolated case? I think not—such cases are coming to light more and more often. Gaspar Llamazares, the Communist Party leader in Spain mentioned above, made the news again in January when the FBI used his image filtered by the Internet to update the robot portrait of Bin Laden.

Some ordinary internauts took notice and, once again, it became worldwide news, even sparking a diplomatic clash between Spain and the US. What makes this paradigm shift possible? To begin with, one of the ele- ments of the convergence culture, media convergence, would be a factor Jenkins The circuits Bert has traveled are the product of not only globalization but also the convergence and synergy of communications media.

In other words, convergence happens not in the media machin- ery itself, however technologically sophisticated it may be, but rather in the brains of senders and receivers Jenkins , in the brain of an FBI agent, for example. We can no longer speak of media producers and media consumers as separate entities performing different functions, as the audience can be an information producer via websites or blogs, and the source can even become a mass communications medium.

This concept is based on the premise that none of us can know everything, especially in an interconnected world where there is more information than the human brain can handle. Because each of us knows something and knows about something, however, the best option is to exploit Web 2. Journalistic sources become communications media The convergence culture model is going to radically alter the concept of com- munications media, for a source can now become a communications medium in its own right.

For example, in , there was cause for celebration among scientists who were studying Martian geology, climate, and geography: Nothing unusual was expected or found. Journalism students experienced quite a shock, however: Every time an internaut accessed any NASA web page—text, photos, or any other content—it was counted as a hit. One-fifth of the traffic was from outside the US, and it was determined via a survey that one-fourth of all visitors were professors or elementary and high school students. The number of unique visits to the science and technology portals of traditional communica- tions media was very much lower, however.

CNN had the most, at , visits, which was almost eight times less. Visits to the science portal at FOX and CBS could not be quantified because the set minimum of , visits was not reached. Only one website, Space. This persuaded such media giants as the Boston Globe and CNN to close their science sections in And where is this leading us?

To a disturbing conclusion: What is NASA—a media source or a communications medium in its own right? Perhaps it is both. NASA is aware of that, in fact, and keeps two avenues of communication open, one with journalists the traditional sources, though this has varied, also and another with society directly, thus bolstering its brand image in both directions. In other words, NASA is not dependent on the major communica- tions media, such as news agencies and international television networks, because they all have the same information.

In the digital age, it seems that young people on scholarships who know how to copy and paste the NASA-supplied content are all that is needed, and then the old journalists are fired. Here is a case of the source, NASA, via its website, being a mass communications medium in its own right, and it infects the traditional communications media, as well. What is truly novel about the digital society is that information that was once received, evaluated, and published only by the mass media is now also received directly by the whole of society—without the need of a journal- ist as intermediary.

Any ordinary citizen interested in NASA can access its website and find there practically all the same content a journalist would copy. That used to be physically impossible, but not now. People truly interested in information about space have more respect for these bloggers than for journalists who work in traditional media. The buzz that arose from the dismissal of James E. What surfaced in the online buzz was that the Bush administration had forbidden him to hold conferences that would corrobo- rate global warming.

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This online buzz found its way into the New York Times January 29, Another very interesting case, which we cannot discuss in depth here, is the Internet buzz being generated to have Pluto declared a planet again. The Internet is capable of conditioning not only political and commercial but also scientific decisions. There is another angle on this, however.

Established in , it is without question one of the major milestones of present-day sci- ence, indeed, all of human history, because, in its philosophy, there is the underlying concept of a kind of research city where human beings would always be present. In other words, the idea was to have human beings located somewhere apart from planet Earth at all times—nothing more, nothing less. Any citizen can watch them, too, however, as if they were a reality show. Once again, we have a blend of mass culture and high culture. Professors of journalism, watching in dismay as their mission to train journalists vanishes in the new order, have registered one commentary: Something similar is happening at Nature, as well, but this is quite different from the traditional concept of a journalist with a traditional education in journalism.

Now NASA scientists, who were once the sources, have become the journalists, that is, they comment on the news in their blogs, and some of them have a large following. They have the power to unleash a political storm, even in economics. NASA takes very good care of the traditional media by giving them an abundance of information. The agency understands perfectly, however, that it is a mass communications medium in its own right and has a brand image, as it creates links on its website for parents, teachers, and children, among others.

In other words, this is the source speaking directly to society without intermediaries. This strategy is beginning to bear some very interesting fruit: Unlike sources such as NASA, however, which are subject to criticism for being government-supported, these institutions have a free and more influential voice. Their leadership is beginning to look for ways to domi- nate the online media buzz.

The traditional media now cite them as sources much more often so that they echo the media buzz more and more every day. Traditional journalism in the digital age What fate is in store for the old journalism in the digital age? At the moment, that is a mystery.

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There is no reason, however, why a change in technology should wipe out an essential element of democracy such as the journalism profession. A scenario similar to this one has played out before, when the telegraph appeared in Being able to get information faster led to news- papers placing far more emphasis on reporting events immediately, rather than explaining them calmly. That year, James Gordon Bennett, publisher of the New York Herald, came to the conclusion that the telegraph would put many newspapers out of business.

But journalism actually flourished more than ever after A key facet of journalism in the digital age is that traditional journalists might no longer be needed or might not be so influential, at least, since providing informative content on the Internet will be their only work. In recent worldwide media events, from the Iraq war to the Obama campaign, we have witnessed rigid behavior on the part of the traditional media and the hidden, self-interested agendas that characterize them Kamiya It has been shown, however, taking the Iraq war as an example, that the most truthful information and the most interesting and accurate analyses were written by academics specializing in the Middle East.