Companion to Medicine in the Twentieth Century (Routledge World Reference)

Bynum, Roy Porter October 07, This is a comprehensive reference work which surveys all aspects of the history of medicine, both clinical and social, and reflects the complementary approaches to the discipline. The editors have assembled an international team of scholars to provide detailed and informative factual surveys with Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan June 25, Olby November 02, Please accept our apologies for any inconvenience this may cause.

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History of medicine

The Routledge Companion to Decolonization. Description This is an essential companion to the process of decolonization - perhaps one of the most important historical processes of the twentieth century. Providing comprehensive coverage of a broad and complex subject area, the guide explores: With suggestions for further reading, and a guide to sources, this is an invaluable resource for students and scholars of the colonial and post-colonial eras, and is an indispensable guide to the reshaping of the world in the twentieth century.

The Best Books of Check out the top books of the year on our page Best Books of Product details Format Paperback pages Dimensions x x Looking for beautiful books? Visit our Beautiful Books page and find lovely books for kids, photography lovers and more. Other books in this series. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease.

He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to treat milk and wine in order to prevent it from causing sickness, a process that came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology , together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch.

He worked chiefly in Paris and in founded the Pasteur Institute there to perpetuate his commitment to basic research and its practical applications. As soon as his institute was created, Pasteur brought together scientists with various specialties. The first five departments were directed by Emile Duclaux general microbiology research and Charles Chamberland microbe research applied to hygiene , as well as a biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov morphological microbe research and two physicians , Jacques-Joseph Grancher rabies and Emile Roux technical microbe research.

One year after the inauguration of the Institut Pasteur, Roux set up the first course of microbiology ever taught in the world, then entitled Cours de Microbie Technique Course of microbe research techniques. It became the model for numerous research centers around the world named "Pasteur Institutes. The First Viennese School of Medicine, —, was led by the Dutchman Gerard van Swieten — , who aimed to put medicine on new scientific foundations—promoting unprejudiced clinical observation, botanical and chemical research, and introducing simple but powerful remedies. When the Vienna General Hospital opened in , it at once became the world's largest hospital and physicians acquired a facility that gradually developed into the most important research centre.

Vienna was the capital of a diverse empire and attracted not just Germans but Czechs, Hungarians, Jews, Poles and others to its world-class medical facilities. Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced. Furthermore, the first dermatology , eye, as well as ear, nose, and throat clinics in the world were founded in Vienna. The textbook of ophthalmologist Georg Joseph Beer — Lehre von den Augenkrankheiten combined practical research and philosophical speculations, and became the standard reference work for decades. After Berlin, the capital of the new German Empire, became a leading center for medical research.

Robert Koch — was a representative leader. He became famous for isolating Bacillus anthracis , the Tuberculosis bacillus and Vibrio cholerae and for his development of Koch's postulates.

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He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in for his tuberculosis findings. Koch is one of the founders of microbiology , inspiring such major figures as Paul Ehrlich and Gerhard Domagk. In the American Civil War —65 , as was typical of the 19th century, more soldiers died of disease than in battle, and even larger numbers were temporarily incapacitated by wounds, disease and accidents.

Weapon development -particularly the appearance of Springfield Model , mass-produced and much more accurate than muskets led to generals underestimating the risks of long range rifle fire; risks exemplified in the death of John Sedgwick and the disastrous Pickett's Charge. The rifles could shatter bone forcing amputation and longer ranges meant casualties were sometimes not quickly found. Evacuation of the wounded from Second Battle of Bull Run took a week. The hygiene of the training and field camps was poor, especially at the beginning of the war when men who had seldom been far from home were brought together for training with thousands of strangers.

First came epidemics of the childhood diseases of chicken pox, mumps, whooping cough, and, especially, measles. Operations in the South meant a dangerous and new disease environment, bringing diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, and malaria. There were no antibiotics, so the surgeons prescribed coffee, whiskey, and quinine. Harsh weather, bad water, inadequate shelter in winter quarters, poor policing of camps, and dirty camp hospitals took their toll.

This was a common scenario in wars from time immemorial, and conditions faced by the Confederate army were even worse. The Union responded by building army hospitals in every state. What was different in the Union was the emergence of skilled, well-funded medical organizers who took proactive action, especially in the much enlarged United States Army Medical Department, [] and the United States Sanitary Commission , a new private agency. A major breakthrough in epidemiology came with the introduction of statistical maps and graphs. They allowed careful analysis of seasonality issues in disease incidents, and the maps allowed public health officials to identify critical loci for the dissemination of disease.

John Snow in London developed the methods. In , he observed that the symptoms of cholera, which had already claimed around lives within a month, were vomiting and diarrhoea.

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He concluded that the source of contamination must be through ingestion, rather than inhalation as was previously thought. It was this insight that resulted in the removal of The Pump On Broad Street, after which deaths from cholera plummeted afterwards.

English nurse Florence Nightingale pioneered analysis of large amounts of statistical data, using graphs and tables, regarding the condition of thousands of patients in the Crimean War to evaluate the efficacy of hospital services. Her methods proved convincing and led to reforms in military and civilian hospitals, usually with the full support of the government. By the late 19th and early 20th century English statisticians led by Francis Galton , Karl Pearson and Ronald Fisher developed the mathematical tools such as correlations and hypothesis tests that made possible much more sophisticated analysis of statistical data.

Civil War the Sanitary Commission collected enormous amounts of statistical data, and opened up the problems of storing information for fast access and mechanically searching for data patterns. The pioneer was John Shaw Billings — A senior surgeon in the war, Billings built the Library of the Surgeon General's Office now the National Library of Medicine , the centerpiece of modern medical information systems. The applications were developed by his assistant Herman Hollerith ; Hollerith invented the punch card and counter-sorter system that dominated statistical data manipulation until the s.

Johns Hopkins Hospital , founded in , originated several modern medical practices, including residency and rounds. European ideas of modern medicine were spread widely through the world by medical missionaries, and the dissemination of textbooks. Japanese elites enthusiastically embraced Western medicine after the Meiji Restoration of the s. However they had been prepared by their knowledge of the Dutch and German medicine, for they had some contact with Europe through the Dutch. These men became leaders of the modernization of medicine in their country. They broke from Japanese traditions of closed medical fraternities and adopted the European approach of an open community of collaboration based on expertise in the latest scientific methods.

In he founded the Institute of Infectious Diseases in Tokyo, which introduced the study of bacteriology to Japan. He and French researcher Alexandre Yersin went to Hong Kong in , where; Kitasato confirmed Yersin's discovery that the bacterium Yersinia pestis is the agent of the plague. In he isolates and described the organism that caused dysentery. He became the first dean of medicine at Keio University, and the first president of the Japan Medical Association.

Japanese physicians immediately recognized the values of X-Rays. They were able to purchase the equipment locally from the Shimadzu Company, which developed, manufactured, marketed, and distributed X-Ray machines after Until the nineteenth century, the care of the insane was largely a communal and family responsibility rather than a medical one. The vast majority of the mentally ill were treated in domestic contexts with only the most unmanageable or burdensome likely to be institutionally confined.

From the early nineteenth century, as lay-led lunacy reform movements gained in influence, [] ever more state governments in the West extended their authority and responsibility over the mentally ill. Emil Kraepelin — introduced new medical categories of mental illness , which eventually came into psychiatric usage despite their basis in behavior rather than pathology or underlying cause.

Shell shock among frontline soldiers exposed to heavy artillery bombardment was first diagnosed by British Army doctors in By , similar symptoms were also noted in soldiers not exposed to explosive shocks, leading to questions as to whether the disorder was physical or psychiatric. In the s several controversial medical practices were introduced including inducing seizures by electroshock , insulin or other drugs or cutting parts of the brain apart leucotomy or lobotomy. Both came into widespread use by psychiatry, but there were grave concerns and much opposition on grounds of basic morality, harmful effects, or misuse.

In the s new psychiatric drugs , notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine , were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control. There was also increasing opposition to the use of psychiatric hospitals, and attempts to move people back into the community on a collaborative user-led group approach "therapeutic communities" not controlled by psychiatry.

Campaigns against masturbation were done in the Victorian era and elsewhere. Lobotomy was used until the s to treat schizophrenia. This was denounced by the anti-psychiatric movement in the s and later. The ABO blood group system was discovered in , and the Rhesus blood group system in , facilitating blood transfusion. During the 20th century, large-scale wars were attended with medics and mobile hospital units which developed advanced techniques for healing massive injuries and controlling infections rampant in battlefield conditions.

During the Mexican Revolution — , General Pancho Villa organized hospital trains for wounded soldiers. Boxcars marked Servicio Sanitario "sanitary service" were re-purposed as surgical operating theaters and areas for recuperation, and staffed by up to 40 Mexican and U. Severely wounded soldiers were shuttled back to base hospitals.

Those practices were combined to broaden cosmetic surgery and other forms of elective surgery. During the First World War , Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an irrigation, Dakin's solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene. The Great War spurred the usage of Roentgen 's X-ray , and the electrocardiograph , for the monitoring of internal bodily functions. This was followed in the inter-war period by the development of the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics.

Public health measures became particular important during the flu pandemic , which killed at least 50 million people around the world. Male doctors were unable to cure the patients, and they felt like failures.

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Women nurses also saw their patients die, but they took pride in their success in fulfilling their professional role of caring for, ministering, comforting, and easing the last hours of their patients, and helping the families of the patients cope as well. From to , the American Red Cross moved into Europe with a battery of long-term child health projects. It built and operated hospitals and clinics, and organized antituberculosis and antityphus campaigns.

A high priority involved child health programs such as clinics, better baby shows, playgrounds, fresh air camps, and courses for women on infant hygiene. The advances in medicine made a dramatic difference for Allied troops, while the Germans and especially the Japanese and Chinese suffered from a severe lack of newer medicines, techniques and facilities.

Harrison finds that the chances of recovery for a badly wounded British infantryman were as much as 25 times better than in the First World War. The reason was that:. Unethical human subject research , and killing of patients with disabilities, peaked during the Nazi era, with Nazi human experimentation and Aktion T4 during the Holocaust as the most significant examples. Many of the details of these and related events were the focus of the Doctors' Trial.

Subsequently, principles of medical ethics , such as the Nuremberg Code , were introduced to prevent a recurrence of such atrocities. In Unit , Japanese doctors and research scientists conducted large numbers of vivisections and experiments on human beings, mostly Chinese victims. Starting in World War II, DDT was used as insecticide to combat insect vectors carrying malaria , which was endemic in most tropical regions of the world. In Liberia, for example, the United States had large military operations during the war and the U. In the early s, the project was expanded to nearby villages.

In , the World Health Organization WHO launched an antimalaria program in parts of Liberia as a pilot project to determine the feasibility of malaria eradication in tropical Africa.

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However these projects encountered a spate of difficulties that foreshadowed the general retreat from malaria eradication efforts across tropical Africa by the mids. The World Health Organization was founded in as a United Nations agency to improve global health.

In most of the world, life expectancy has improved since then, and was about 67 years as of [update] , and well above 80 years in some countries. Eradication of infectious diseases is an international effort, and several new vaccines have been developed during the post-war years, against infections such as measles , mumps , several strains of influenza and human papilloma virus.

The long-known vaccine against Smallpox finally eradicated the disease in the s, and Rinderpest was wiped out in Eradication of polio is underway. Tissue culture is important for development of vaccines. Though the early success of antiviral vaccines and antibacterial drugs, antiviral drugs were not introduced until the s. As infectious diseases have become less lethal, and the most common causes of death in developed countries are now tumors and cardiovascular diseases , these conditions have received increased attention in medical research.

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Tobacco smoking as a cause of lung cancer was first researched in the s, but was not widely supported by publications until the s. Cancer treatment has been developed with radiotherapy , chemotherapy and surgical oncology. Oral rehydration therapy has been extensively used since the s to treat cholera and other diarrhea-inducing infections. The sexual revolution included taboo-breaking research in human sexuality such as the and Kinsey reports , invention of hormonal contraception , and the normalization of abortion and homosexuality in many countries.

Family planning has promoted a demographic transition in most of the world. With threatening sexually transmitted infections , not least HIV , use of barrier contraception has become imperative. The struggle against HIV has improved antiretroviral treatments. X-ray imaging was the first kind of medical imaging , and later ultrasonic imaging , CT scanning , MR scanning and other imaging methods became available. Genetics have advanced with the discovery of the DNA molecule, genetic mapping and gene therapy. Stem cell research took off in the s decade , with stem cell therapy as a promising method.

Evidence-based medicine is a modern concept, not introduced to literature until the s. In , Arne Larsson in Sweden became the first patient to depend on an artificial cardiac pacemaker. He died in at age 86, having outlived its inventor, the surgeon, and 26 pacemakers. Lightweight materials as well as neural prosthetics emerged in the end of the 20th century.

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Cardiac surgery was revolutionized in as open-heart surgery was introduced for the first time since In Joseph Murray , J. Hartwell Harrison and others accomplished the first kidney transplantation.

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Transplantations of other organs, such as heart, liver and pancreas, were also introduced during the later 20th century. The first partial face transplant was performed in , and the first full one in By the end of the 20th century, microtechnology had been used to create tiny robotic devices to assist microsurgery using micro-video and fiber-optic cameras to view internal tissues during surgery with minimally invasive practices.

Early 20th Century medicine

Laparoscopic surgery was broadly introduced in the s. Natural orifice surgery has followed. Remote surgery is another recent development, with the Lindbergh operation in as a groundbreaking example. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the history of human medicine.

For veterinary medicine, see History of veterinary medicine. Alternative medicine Quackery Health fraud History of alternative medicine Rise of modern medicine Pseudoscience Antiscience Skepticism Skeptical movement. Fringe medicine and science. Alternative medical systems Mind—body intervention Biologically-based therapy Manipulative methods Energy therapy. Ayurveda , Unani , and Siddha medicine. Medicine in ancient Greece. Medicine in ancient Rome and Medical community of ancient Rome. Byzantine medicine and Medicine in the medieval Islamic world. Medicine in the medieval Islamic world.

Medieval medicine of Western Europe. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. May Learn how and when to remove this template message. Health care in the United States History of herbalism History of hospitals History of medicine in Canada History of medicine in the United States History of nursing History of pathology History of pharmacy History of surgery Thomas Clifford Allbutt [] Timeline of nursing history Timeline of medicine and medical technology History of health care disambiguation.

Neanderthal healthcare in social context". Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: The British Museum Press. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East.



Archived from the original PDF on Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. Archived from the original on Studies in Ancient Medicine. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. University of Oklahoma Press. The Western Medical Tradition: Zysk, Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Chinese Medicine and Healing: Notable American Women, — Mending bodies, saving souls: Surgical cures by sleep induction as the Asclepieion of Epidaurus.

The history of anesthesia: Retrieved 30 December The greatest benefit to mankind: Act II, Scene 3. The dawn of medicine. Retrieved 16 January Quipus and Witches' Knots. University of Kansas Press. Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmaeon to the Alexandrians. The Prince of Medicine: Galen in the Roman Empire. Siegel, Galen's system of physiology and medicine Karger, European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, — US National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 29 August A medical history of Persia.

An Encyclopedia, by Josef W. A medical history of humanity pp.