Literaturvermittlung im Internet - Hyperfiction (German Edition)

That fictional histories could share the same space with academic histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages: The climate had, however, changed, in the s. Paradoxically, the same historians who pleaded for a new era of academic research also pleaded for fiction to stay within the field of histories. The authors who advocated Pyrrhonism , scepticism as a historical discipline, did not demand that fictions change.

Instead, they demanded that historians should step from the old project of historical narratives to a new project of critical analysis and discussion of sources. In a time when factuality was not a sufficient defence against a libel suit, the romantic lay out allowed the publication of histories that could not risk an unambiguous assertion of their truth. The question was not whether one should separate the markets of true and fictional histories from each other but whether one would be able to establish critical discourses to evaluate all the interesting production.

The market of the late 17th and early 18th centuries employed a simple pattern of options of how fictions could both be part of the historical production and reach out into the sphere of true histories. The fringes of this pattern flourished as cheap excuses. They allowed it authors to claim they had published fiction, not truth, if they ever faced outright allegations of libel:.

Prefaces and title pages of 17th- and early 18th-century fiction acknowledged this pattern: Other works could, conversely, claim to be factual histories, yet earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented. A further differentiation was made between private and public history: Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe was, within this pattern, neither "romance" nor "novel". IF ever the Story of any private Man's Adventures in the World were worth making Pvblick, and were acceptable when Publish'd, the Editor of this Account thinks this will be so. The Wonders of this Man's Life exceed all that he thinks is to be found extant; the Life of one Man being scarce capable of a greater Variety.

The Story is told with Modesty, with Seriousness, and with a religious Application of Events to the Uses to which wise Men always ap[p]ly them viz. The Editor [ 49 ] believes the thing to be a just History of Fact; neither is there any Appearance of Fiction in it: And however thinks, because all such things are dispatch'd, [ 50 ] that the Improvement of it, as well as the Diversion, as to the Instruction of the Reader, will be the same; [ 51 ] and as such he thinks, without farther Compliment to the World, he does them a great Service in the Publication.

Defoe's Robinson Crusoe did not use the twilight to spread political insinuations; the hardly credible account did, however, offer the alternative of a deeper allegorical reading. Other authors proved the practical value of the pattern. Delarivier Manley —under interrogation after the publication of her scandalous Atalantis —replied that she had written a work of sheer romance, a fairy tale located on the famous fictional island. If the ruling Whigs wanted to prove that all her stories matched a scandalous truth of their own actions, they might venture a libel case.

The authoress was released and continued her insinuations with three more volumes of proclaimed romance published during the next two years. Whilst journalists continued to defend the dubious production relying on the enlightened audience's ability to read with the necessary grain of skepticism if not with amusement , the defenders of public morals demanded an entirely new organization of the market, one that isolated fiction.

This was the market the 18th century was to establish. The 18th-century rise of the novel [ 56 ] is a compound of several stories. One is a story of statistics. English readers of the late 17th and early 18th centuries were offered a total of some 2, to 3, titles per year. The numbers had risen dramatically after the abolition of the Star Chamber in The simple title count gives, however, a distorted picture as it places theological and political pamphlets of short term effect on the same level with editions of books printed to sell over several years.

Statistics of the French and German markets have their own distortions: French numbers are comparatively higher due to the fact that Dutch publishers re- printed French books for the international market. French was Europe's lingua franca and the language of international politics and fashions.

Germany's book trade was large but divided between Protestant and Catholic states. The former had arranged for a wider exchange at Leipzig's fairs. The academic production in Latin was comparatively large on the continent due to the importance continental universities had gained as providers of careers.

Literature in the modern sense was of marginal importance all over Europe until the end of the 18th century. In the Western markets some two to five percent of the total production fell into the categories of poetry and dubious or elegant historical works that were later united under the new heading literature. To give the numbers for the English production: The fictional output remained here at 20 to 60 titles per year in the beginning of the 18th century depending on how one accounts for the wider market of histories.

French, German and Dutch statistics are comparable. The Western European output of literature in the modern sense rose significantly in the course of the 18th century; the growth rates stabilised in the s. A change in the public appreciation supported that growth and was reflected by the growing media coverage of new works. Fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment around Printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all classes, the reading habits differed.

To follow fashions remained a privilege. As Huet was to note in , the change was one of manners.

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Aristocratic and bourgeois customers sought distinctly French authors to offer the authentic style of conversations in the s. The situation changed again from s into the s: Dutch publishers [ 59 ] began to sell works by French authors, published out of the reach of French censors. The publishing houses of The Hague and Amsterdam also pirated the entire Parisian production of fashionable books and thus created a new market of political and scandalous fictions and European fashions.

In the year of its publication, the latter work was available both in an English version published in London and a German version published in Nuremberg. Books of the period boasted of their fame on the international market and of the existence of intermediate translations. A market of European rather than French fashions had arrived in the early 18th century.

By the s the fashionable political European production had inspired a second wave of private scandalous publications and generated new productions of local importance. Women authors reported on politics and on their private love affairs in The Hague and in London. German students imitated them and used the relative anonymity they enjoyed in far smaller towns like Jena, Halle and Leipzig, to boast of their private amours in fiction. The reform became the main goal of the second generation of 18th-century novelists who, by the mid-century, openly welcomed the change of climate that had first been promoted in journals such as The Spectator No.

Constructive criticism of novels had until then hardly left the world of fiction. New "literary journals" like Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 's Briefe, die neuste Literatur betreffend added to this production in the middle of the century with the offer of new, scientific reviews of art and fiction. By the s, critical public reception constituted a new marketing platform for fiction, and authors and publishers recognized it as such.

One could write to satisfy the old market or one could address the authors of secondary criticism and gain an audience through their discussions. It would take yet another generation for the novel to arrive in the curricula of school and university education. By the end of the 18th century, the public perception of the place of a particular novel was no longer supplied simply by social status and fashionable geographical provenance, but by critical media attention. The term " literary realism " is regularly applied to 19th-century fiction. The novels Defoe, Richardson and Fielding wrote between and the s can be read as precursors.

Research of the last decades has, however, contested views that it was Robinson Crusoe's realism that ended the sway of "French baroque romances". The ensuing production had broadly encroached upon the news market: Delarivier Manley 's Atalantis was reviewed by a German academic journal in as work of contemporary public history. An imprisonment of 11 years had been Renneville's bargain, Crusoe made it 28 years. Renneville's English translator had complained of an author who was "not always in a Temper; sometimes he is all Piety and Godliness, and then again flies out into a Romantick Strain.

One can note a balance of opposing developments here: The 18th century witnessed the rise of increasingly realistic fictions while both, authors and critics defined the entire field of fictions as distinct from the historical. The development de-scandalised the market: Valuable fictions defended a higher truth, a truth beyond the flat, factual and historical truth of every-day experience. Theories of aesthetics praised the "imitation of nature" and the artist's almost divine power to create worlds of a deeper significance in the second half of the 18th century.

The previous conflict between historians and romancers was thus finally resolved: Valuable Fictions and true histories became two fields the modern nations needed. Literary journals and literary histories became the privileged media of a new analysis of literary art — the development that has been noted above as one of status and that eventually caused the 19th century conceptual change of the word literature.

The market divide that led to the modern trivial production in the second half of the 18th century was the by product of this process. The rise of pornography beginning in the s is an early sign for that divide. The change of words, the rise of the word "novel" at the cost of the rivaling "romance", remained a Spanish and English phenomenon. Readers all over western Europe had welcomed the novel la or short history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century. Only the English and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the old production. The change of taste remained a temporal phenomenon.

Jane Barker explicitly advertised her Exilius as "A new Romance", "written after the Manner of Telemachus" in to which she added a preface on the scandalous new production one had to get rid of. The term "novel" first peaked on the English market in the s, when the novel la manifested itself as the alternative to the older "romance". It lost its attractiveness with ensuing scandalous production in the twilight between truth and fiction. The s saw a second peak of "novels" with the first editions of classics of the genre and with new large scale "novels" in the style Eliza Haywood wrote.

In the midth century it was no longer clear whether the market had not simply developed two terms: The late 18th-century brought an answer with the " romantic " movement's readiness to reclaim the word "romance" as term for explicitly grotesque and distant fictional settings. Robinson Crusoe became a "novel" in that period [ 81 ] appearing now as a work of the new realism of fiction the 18th century had brought forth. The term "romance" was eventually restricted to love stories in the course of the 19th century. The theologian had not only dared to praise fictions; he had also explained techniques of theological reading, the interpretation of fictions: Christ had used parables to teach; ancient Milesians had used them to arouse sexual fantasies; France produced them at present to test the options of a less inhibited conversation between the sexes.

The decades around saw the appearance of new editions of Petronius , [ 84 ] Lucian [ 85 ] and Heliodorus of Emesa. Exotic fictions entered the market to give insight into the Islamic frame of mind. One read The Book of One Thousand and One Nights first published in Europe from to in French, and translated immediately from this edition into English and German as a contribution to Huet's history of romances.

New classics added to the market: The English Select Collection of Novels in six volumes —22 is a milestone in this development, including Huet's Treatise with the European tradition of the modern novel that is, novella from Machiavelli 's to Marie de LaFayette's masterpieces. Aphra Behn 's prose fictions had appeared as "novels" in the s and were reprinted in collections of her works which turned the scandalous authoress into a modern classic. New authors entered the market ready to use their personal names as producers of fiction: Eliza Haywood thus followed the footsteps of Aphra Behn in using her name with unprecedented pride.

The production of classics allowed the novel to gain a past, prestige and a canon. It called at the same moment for a present production of equal merits. A wave of midth-century works that proclaimed their intent to propagate improved moral values gave critics modern novels they could discuss publicly. Instead of banning novels, the efforts at reformation of manners that had begun in the s now led to their reform. Female authors and heroines were the first affected by the development. Madame d'Aulnoy and Delarivier Manley became notorious examples of a bygone age of impudence.

They had washed their dirty linen in public and used their novels to reinvent themselves and convert their own notoriety into fame. The new female heroines had to show intimacy and sensitivity where their early 18th century ancestors had been ready to appear in public in order to sanitize their reputations. Intimate confessions and blushes filled the new novels, feelings of guilt, even where suspicions were groundless early 18th century heroines had defended their virtues and reputations flamboyantly even where they had gone astray.

The modern heroines acted transparently, whereas their early 18th century counterparts had resorted to secret dealings in endless intrigues. To become a fashion, if not the standard of modern behavior, the new personality features needed new social environments. Marie de La Fayette's Princesse had fallen into a desperate situation as soon as she risked the outrageous transparency to confess her feelings for another man to her husband.

Neither he nor his rival knew how to continue once all this was clear. Midth-century novels created alternatives: Other novels placed the new transparent heroines into equally new caring environments. Their families resisted temptations to marry them off against their wills, and men around them resisted temptations to seduce them in moments of weakness.

The message was that respect and care were to meet open-heartedness in a new age of sensibility. Other novels experimented with surprising acts of an enlightened rationality with which their protagonists could escape deadlock situations far worse than the one Marie de La Fayette's Princesse had produced with her confessions. Samuel Richardson 's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded , composed "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes" focused, by contrast, on the potential victim, a heroine of all the modern virtues vulnerable through her social status and her occupation as servant of the libertine who falls in love with her.

Eventually, she shows the power to reform her antagonist. The titular countess had to decide between two husbands after her first, believed to be dead, returned from a Siberian war captivity. Both her husbands, former friends, had to come to terms with the rational problem her situation presented and did it in a startling mixture of piety and modern philosophy. Male heroes adopted the new sentimental character traits in the s. Laurence Sterne 's Yorick , the hero of the Sentimental Journey did so with an enormous amount of humour.

The virtuous production inspired a sub - and counterculture of pornographic novels. Greek and Latin authors in modern translations had provided elegant transgressions on the market of the belles lettres for the last century. The new production beginning with works like John Cleland 's Fanny Hill differed in that it offered almost exact reversals of the plot lines the virtuous production demanded.

Fanny Hill is introduced to a life of prostitution, learns to enjoy her part and establishes herself as a free and economically independent individual — in editions one could only expect to buy under the counter. The titular hero realised how impossible it had become for him to integrate into the new conformist society. Pierre Choderlos de Laclos 's Les Liaisons dangereuses shows the other extreme, with a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality. The sentimental protagonists of the s had already surprised their readers and aroused a debate whether human nature was correctly depicted with these new novels.

They discovered a truth of the heart one had not dared to deal with so far. The radical and lonely characters that appeared in the s and s broke with traditions and eventually needed entirely new back-stories to become plausible. Childhoods, and adolescences had to explain why these protagonists should have developed so differently. The concept of character development began to fascinate novelists in the s. Jean Jacques Rousseau 's novels focused on such developments in philosophical experiments. The German Bildungsroman offered quasi-biographical explorations and autobiographical self examinations of the individual and its personal development by the s.

A subcategory of the genre focused on the creation of an artist if not the artist writing the novel. It led to the 19th-century production of novels exploring how modern times form the modern individual. The new 18th-century status of the novel as an object of debate is particularly manifest in special development of philosophical [ 93 ] and experimental novels.

Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. Plato 's dialogues were embedded in fictional narratives. Works such as these had not been read as novels or romances but as philosophical texts. The s saw new editions of More's work under the title that created the tradition: Voltaire utilised the romance to write philosophy with his Micromegas: Being a severe satire upon the philosophy, ignorance, and self-conceit of mankind , English His Zadig and Candide became central texts of the French Enlightenment and of the modern novel.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau bridged the genres with his less fictional Emile: It made sense to publish these works as romances or novels, works of fiction, only because prose fiction had become an object of public discussion. The public reception provided by the new market of journals was both freer and wider than the discussion in journals of philosophy would have been. It had become attractive to step into the realm of fiction in order to provide matter for the ongoing debates. The genre's new understanding of itself resulted in the first metafictional experiment, pressing against its limitations.

It expanded the author-reader communication from the preface into the plot itself — Tristram Shandy develops as a conversation between the narrative voice and his audience. Besides narrative experiments, there were visual experiments: Jonathan Swift 's A Tale of a Tub is an early precursor in this field — a work that employs visual elements with similar ambition — yet hardly a text in the tradition of the original novel or its rival the romance.

By the beginning of the 19th century, prose fiction had moved from a field of questionable entertainment and precarious historicity into the centre of the new literary debate. A new arrangement of the sciences taught at modern universities would finally protect the development. Theology, law, medicine, and philosophy had been the four traditional faculties.

National literature became the object of a new university system in which the natural sciences acted as exact sciences , the social sciences with an outlook on the modern societies, and the humanities with a responsibility for history and culture. Literature in a definition that turned fiction into a central literary production would be a subject of the philologies in the latter segment of research.

The traditional task of literary historians, to review the sciences, was referred to the individual sciences and their respective academic journals. The general debate of literature was turned into an exploration of poetry and fiction. The modes of this exploration were new. Poetry had been analysed in poetological treatises asking for perfection and the rules that had to be mastered in the different genres. Early 18th-century critics had been ready to see the opera as the central poetic production of the modern era. One would differentiate between an Italian and a French style and consider an international production.

This arrangement was discredited in the course of the 18th century. Operas became music and the new literary histories offered in the 19th century focused on the greatest works an outstanding nation or language had brought forth. The new interest lay in interpretations. Georg Gottfried Gervinus ' Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur der Deutschen , published in its successive volumes between and became the European model with a project that rather resembled Pierre Daniel Huet 's Treatise on the Origin of Romances than any of the previous works on poetry or on literature the sciences.

The new literary historian spoke about the cultural significance of the works he analysed. Unlike Huet Gervinus was solely interested in the works of his nation — whose history and mentality he hoped do better understand. Other nations were of interest as they had threatened the intellectual development to be observed. Huet had given a world history of fiction. The 19th-century literary historian offered his project with the controversial promise to show how the nation had freed and found itself in its fictional production.

The project persuaded scholars in France and Italy to bring forth similar histories for their nations whilst the Anglophone world remained rather uninterested. Hippolyte Taine eventually offered the first history of English literature at first in French, a year later, in in an English version that opened with a look back on the first century of modern literary history:. The discovery has been made that a literary work is not a mere play of the imagination, the isolated caprice of an excited brain, but a transcript of contemporary manners and customs and the sign of a particular state of intellect.

The conclusion derived from this is that, through literary monuments, we can retrace the way in which men felt and thought many centuries ago. This method has been tried and found successful. We have meditated over these ways of feeling and thinking and have accepted them as facts of prime significance. We have found that they were dependent on most important events, that they explain these, and that these explain them, and that henceforth it was necessary to give them their place in history, and one of the highest.

The essentially nationalistic analysis of poetical fictions had begun in Germany in the late s with a look back on three decades of international European fashions. German authors had embraced French " gallantry " as the essence of elegance and style. The country had gained nothing in the wars the European nations had supported on behalf of the Empire. The comparatively European decades of the Nine Years War , the War of the Spanish Succession and the Great Northern War had eventually left the intellectual elite disenchanted.

The discussion of the nation's poetry Johann Christoph Gottsched proposed at the end of the s formulated a national project connected with the offer to reform the entire market of German poetry. Johann Jakob Bodmer , Johann Jakob Breitinger , and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing adopted Gottsched's project and created the national discourse that finally gained national importance between and when Germany had to define itself in the events of the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars.

At the turn into the 19th century the first German territories implemented the new field of research in their national school curricula. Three decades later the first histories of German literature apperaed with proposals of the canon the young nation would need. The new topic was of immense interest thanks to its focus on the nation, [ 97 ] thanks to its controversial perspectives on the nation's history and identity, thanks to its attempts to reform the markets of fiction.

The secularization pushed the new topic in France and Germany. Literature offered worldly texts to be interpreted in schools and at universities where religious texts had been interpreted thus far. The Anglophone world adopted the new topic reluctantly. London had developed a commercial production of the belles lettres, independent from the markets of Amsterdam and Paris, as early as the early s.

The new market had found its own commercial criticism and did not need an academic variant with a distinctly national perspective. Shakespeare had become an object of national veneration without the help of academic critics by the s. A rediscovery of the past had followed, with such doubtful discoveries as the Ossian -fragments.

Critics discussed the belles lettres in fashionable English journals. Latest theatre performances were discussed in the newspapers at the end of the 18th century.

The continental debate of "literature" remained uninteresting with all the academic institutions it promised to generate. Great Britain did not need new national platforms. State politics and religion were open platforms — in Britain protected by modern press laws since the s. The continent had opted for a fundamental secularisation. Britain rested on the union of state and church, the USA on the opposite notion of private religiosity and a state that would not interfere. Neither country needed a topic for school lessons, in which worldly texts would be used in much the same way as religious texts had been used before.

As for criticism of plays and fictions one could well live with the commercial criticism the market brought forth. Germany invented a dualism of "Literaturwissenschaft", literary criticism formulated by university professors, and "Literaturkritik", literary criticism as to be found in the newspapers. A single word remained enough to speak of literary criticism in English. The new topic was eventually adopted both in Britain and the USA in the and s.

The educational systems of the Western nations developed international standards. The Western canon became the project of a new international competition. To do this they eventually shared the same academic institutions that monitored, evaluated and basically organised their public controversies. Literature and culture had been topics the nations could hope to handle with more competence than religion. The " republic of letters ", the "respublica literaria", the early modern scientific community that had coined the term literature had definied itself as the first truly pluralistic institution.

The new topic spread in win-win situations. The publishing industry promoted fiction, literature, Belletristik. New authors profited from the exchange. The reading public eagerly followed the debate and was ready to identify with the greatest authors now produced. New commercial rules began to structure the exchange. Most of the early 18th-century authors of fiction had published anonymously. They had offered their manuscripts and received all the payment to be expected for the manuscript.

The new copyright laws introduced in the 18th and 19th centuries [ ] promised a profit share on all future editions and created a new strategy with the revolutionary work, readers would initially hardly understand. One would publish such a work in a small first edition hoping for critics to prove it into an eternal classic. Novelists, a scandalous branch of authors a century ago, assumed entirely new roles as public voices; they spoke as their nation's conscience, as national sages, as far sighted judges in newspapers, in public debates and in entirely new celebrations of their public status.

The novelist who reads in theater halls and book shops is a 19th-century invention. Fiction gained new qualities in the exchange. The literary market gave rise to difficult texts that could not hope to be understood without critical interpretations. New novels openly addressed the present political and social issues — sure to be discussed by media focusing on the same issues.

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Responsibility became a key issue: Responsibility of the citizen whose voice is heard or responsibility of the artist whose work future generations will have evaluate. The theoretical debate concentrated on the moral soundness of modern novels, [ ] on the integrity of individual artists, and on the provocative claims of aestheticists such as Oscar Wilde and Algernon Charles Swinburne who proposed to write " art for art's sake ", [ ] that is with a responsibility the present audience and the present critics might not be able to understand.

The up-market of works deserving to be read as "literature" was matched by a growing market of "popular fictions", "trivial literature" — a market that discontinued the production of chapbooks and grew in the former field of elegant belles lettres. New institutions like the circulating library affected the market as platforms publishing houses would address with their first editions. Fiction became the object of a new mass reading public [ ] protected, monitored and analysed by nation wide debates and by institutions the new states would hope to control. The developments did not lead to stable definitions of the terms it popularized.

The exchange affected from now onwards children at school as much as intellectuals who risked their lives in public controversies.

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The very word romanticism made direct reference to the art of romances. The genre, as opposed to the modern novel, experienced a revival with gothic fiction from Ann Radcliffe 's "romance" The Mysteries of Udolpho to M. Lewis ' "romance" The Monk The new romances not only attacked the modern novel's "natural" depictions of life, they destabilized the very differentiation modern critics had been trying to establish between serious classical art and popular fiction. Gothic romances were grotesque. If the Amadis had troubled Don Quixote with curious fantasies, the new romantic tales were worse: The authors of this new type of fiction could be and were accused of exploiting all available topics to thrill, arouse or horrify their audience.

These new romantic novelists could, at the same time, claim to explore the entire realm of fictionality. New—psychological—interpreters would read these works as encounters with the deeper hidden truth of the human imagination or the collective mind with all its recesses: Under a psychological reading, novels were said to explore our deeper motives by moving into the field of art and by trying to reach and transgress its limitations.

Artistic freedom would reveal what had not previously been openly visible: The literary world started to recognize the fragment as art potentially surpassing all the works of intricate composition. Terror and kitsch entered the productions with explorations of the trivial. The ancient romancers most commonly wrote fiction about the remote past. The present had been the object of "curious" explorations in the hands of satirists like Grimmelshausen and Richard Head and in the hands of scandalous authors from de Courtilz de Sandras to the anonymous author of La Guerre d'Espagne Cologne: Walter Scott 's historical novel Waverley broke with these traditions.

Scott did not write to satisfy the audience with temporal escapism, nor did he threaten the boundaries between fact and fiction with his works, as Constantin de Renneville had done with his French Inquisition Scott's work remained a novel, a work of art. His work remained historical fiction, yet it questioned existing historical perceptions.

The special power was partly gained through research: Scott the novelist, resorted to documentary sources as any historian would have done, but as an artist he gave things a deeper significance. Attracting a far wider market than any historian could address, and rendering the past vividly, his work destabilized public perceptions of that past. Most 19th-century authors hardly went beyond illustrating and supporting widespread historical views.

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Slavery in the United States , abolitionism and racism became topics of far broader public debate thanks to Harriet Beecher Stowe 's Uncle Tom's Cabin , as whose characters provided personifications for topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract. Charles Dickens led the audience into contemporary British workhouses: Crime became a personal reality with Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's Crime and Punishment Women authors had dominated the production of fiction from the s into the early s, but few before George Eliot so openly questioned the position of women, the precepts of their education, and their social position.

As the novel became the most interesting platform of modern debates—allegedly free, as art could claim to be in the modern secular western societies—a race began between nations to re- establish their national literatures with novels as the essential production that could link the present with the past. Alessandro Manzoni 's, I Promessi Sposi did this for Italy; Russia and the surrounding Slavonic brought forth their first novels; the Scandinavian countries entered the race.

With the new appreciation of history, the future also became a topic for fiction. Samuel Madden 's Memoirs of the Twentieth Century had been a satire, presenting a future that was basically the present age, but with the Jesuits secretly ruling the globe. Edward Bellamy 's Looking Backward and H. Wells 's The Time Machine were, by contrast, marked by the idea of long term technological and biological developments.

Industrialization , Darwin 's theory of evolution and Marx's theory of class divisions shaped these works and turned historical processes into a subject matter of wide debate: The individual , the potentially isolated hero, had stood at the centre of romantic fictions since the Middle Ages. The early novel la had placed the story itself at the centre: And yet, the individual had returned with a wave of satirical romances and historical pseudo romances.

Individuals such as Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders, Pamela, and Clarissa reintroduced the old romantic focus on the individual as the centre of what was to become the modern novel. Ancient, medieval and early modern fictional characters lacked certain features that modern readers expect. Epics and romances created heroes, individuals who would fight against knight after knight, change as an Assyrian princess into men's clothes, survive alone on an island — whilst it would never see its personal experience as an individualizing factor. The early modern novelist had remained a historian as much as the author of the most personal French contemporary memoir.

As soon as it came to relating the facts and experiences, it became a question of proper writing skills. The modern individual changed. The rift can first be seen in the works of medieval mystics and early modern Protestant autobiographers: The sentimental experience created a new field of — secular, rather than religiously motivated — individualizations which immediately invited followers to join.

Werther 's step out of the value systems that surrounded him, his desperate search for the one and only soul to understand him, inspired an instantaneous European fashion. Napoleon told Goethe he had read the volume about a dozen times; [ ] others were seen wearing breeches in Werther's colour to signal that they were experiencing the same exceptionalism. The novel proved the ideal medium for the new movements as it was ultimately written from an individual's point of view with the aim to unfold in the silence of another's individual mind. The late 18th-century exploration of personal developments created room for depictions of personal experiences; it gained momentum with the romantic exploration of fictionality as a medium of creative imagination; and it gained a political edge with the 19th-century focus on history and the modern societies.

The rift between the individual and his or her social environment had to have roots in personal developments which this individual shared with those around him or her, with his or her class or the entire nation. Any such rift had the power to criticize the collective histories the modern nations were just then producing. The new personal perceptions the protagonists of novels offered were on the other hand interesting as they could easily become part of the collective experience the modern nation had to create.

The novel's individual perspective allowed for personal reevaluations of the public historical perceptions and it allowed for personal developments that could still lead back into modern societies. The 19th-century Bildungsroman became the arena of such explorations of personal developments that separated the individual from, and then reunited it with, his or her social environment.

Outsider perspectives became the field of midth-century explorations. The artist's life had been an interesting topic before with the artist being by public definition the exceptional individual whose perceptions naturally enabled him to produce different views. Charles Dickens 's Oliver Twist and Gottfried Keller 's Green Henry focused on the perspectives of children , Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's Crime and Punishment added a drop-out student who became a murderer to the spectrum of special observers whose views would promise reinterpretations of modern life.

The exploration of the individual's perception eventually revolutionized the very modes of writing fiction. The search for one's personal style stood in the centre of the competition among authors in the 19th century, now that novelists had become publicly celebrated minds. The destabilization of the author-text connection, which 20th century criticism was to propose later on, finally led to experiments with what had been the individual's voice so far — speaking through the author or portrayed by him. These options were to be widened with new concepts of what texts actually were with the beginning of the 20th century.

Given the number of new editions and the place of the modern novel among the genres sold in bookshops today, the novel is far from the crisis predicted by critics such as John Barth himself a novelist or, more recently, Alvin Kernan. Literature has not ended in "exhaustion" [ ] or in a silent "death"; [ ] nor have bound paper books been superseded by such new media as cinema, television or such new channels of distribution as the Internet [ ] or e-books.

Novels such as the Harry Potter books have created public sensation among an audience critics had seen as lost. Novels were among the first material artefacts the Nazis burnt in public celebrations of their power in ; [ ] and they remained the very last thing they allowed their publishers to print as World War II ended in the devastation of central Europe: Hermann Hesse 's Steppenwolf and Carlos Castaneda 's Journey to Ixtlan had become cult classics of inner resistance. Whilst it was difficult to learn anything about Siberia's concentration camps in the strictly censored Soviet media, it was a novel, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich and its proto-historic expansion The Gulag Archipelago that eventually gave the world an inside view.

The novel remains both public and private. It is a public product of modern print culture even where it circulates in illegal samizdat copies. It remains difficult to target. An Orwellian regime would have to search households and to burn every retrievable copy: The artefact that constituted one of the earliest flashpoints in the current cultural confrontation between the secular West and the Islamic East, Rushdie's Satanic Verses , exemplifies almost all the advantages the modern novel has over its rivals. It is a work of epic dimensions no film maker could achieve, a work of privacy and individuality of perspective wherever it leads into the dream worlds of its protagonists, a work that uniquely anticipated ensuing political debates, and a work many Western critics classified as one of the greatest novels ever written.

It is postmodernist in its ability to play with the entire field of literary traditions without ever sacrificing its topicality. The democratic West depicted itself as the advocate of literature as the freest form of self-expression. The Islamic fundamentalist interpretation of the same confrontation has its own historical validity. This interpretation sees a conflict between Western secular nations and a postsecular religious world.

The Islamic republic eventually demonstrated how far the West had created its own inviolable if not sacred spheres in this development: Westerners can become atheists, they can admire any "blasphemy" as "art", but they cannot act with the same freedom in the field of history. Holocaust denial is criminalised in several Western nations in defence of secular pluralism. The Islamic nations protect, so goes the rationale, at the heart of the conflict a different hierarchy of discourses. In a longer perspective, the conflict arose with the worldwide expansion of Western literary and cultural life in the 20th century.

To look back, around fiction had been a small but virulent market of fashionable books in the sphere of public history.

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By contrast, in 19th century Europe the novel had become the center of a new literary debate. The 20th century began with the Western export of new global conflicts, new technologies of telecommunication and new industries. The new arrangement of the academic disciplines became a world standard.

Within this system the humanities are the ensemble of subjects that evaluate and organise public debate, from art and literature to history. Literature entered their public spheres almost automatically as the arena of free personal expression and as a field of national pride in which one had to search for one's historical identity, as the Western nations had done before.

A number of literatures could challenge the West with traditions of their own: Chinese novels are older than any comparable Western works. Other regions of the world had to begin their traditions as the Slavonic and Scandinavian nations had done in the 19th-century's European competition: South Asia [ ] and Latin America joined the production of world literature at the beginning of the 20th century. The run for the first black African novel to be written by a black African author is today a topic of research in postcolonialist literary studies. The worldwide spread of the novel was monitored and mentored by such Western institutions as the Nobel Prize in Literature.

The list of its laureates can be read as a chronicle of the gradual expansion of Western literary life. The contemporary novel defends the significance it had won by the s, and it has stepped beyond, into a new awareness of its public outreach. Nationwide debates can become international debates at any given moment. Today's novelists can address a worldwide public, with international institutions, prestigious prizes , [ ] and such far-reaching associations as the worldwide association of writers P. The exiled author, [ ] who is celebrated by the international audience whilst he or she is persecuted at home is a 20th-century and now 21st-century figure.

The author as keeper of his or her nation's conscience is a new cultural icon of the age of globalization. Back in the early 18th century some titles per year, that is between one and three percent of the total annual English production of about 2, titles, could be reckoned as fiction — a total of 20,, copies on the assumption of standard print runs of about 1, copies. The percentage has remained relatively stable over the past 20 years, though the total numbers doubled from 5, in to 13, in According to Nielsen BookScan statistics published in [ ] UK publishers sold an estimated Adult fiction an estimated Children's, young adult and educational books, a section comprising best-sellers such as the Harry Potter volumes, made another Adult fiction made roughly a quarter of that value: A vibrant literary life fuels the market.

It unfolds in a complex interaction between authors, their publishing houses , the reading public, and a literary criticism of immense diversity voiced in the media and in the nation's educational systems. The latter provide through their branches of academic criticism many of the topics, the modes of discussion and to a good extent the experts themselves who teach and discuss literature in schools and in the media. Modern marketing of fiction reflects this complex interaction with an awareness of the specific reverberations a new title must find in order to reach a wider audience.

Different levels of communication mark successful modern novels as a result of the genre's present position in or outside literary debates. An elite exchange has developed between novelists and literary theorists, allowing for direct interactions between authors and critics. Authors who write literary criticism can eventually modify the very criteria under which theorists discuss their works.

Literary recognition can also be gained when novels influence thinking about non-literary controversies. A third option remains with novels that find their audiences without the help of critical debate. Even serious novels can become the object of direct marketing strategies along the lines publishers usually reserve for "popular fiction". Many of the techniques the novel developed over the past years can be understood as the result of competition with the new 20th- and 21st- century mass media: Shot and sequence , focus and perspective have moved from film editing to literary composition.

Experimental 20th-century fiction is, at the same time, influenced by literary theory. Literary theory, arising in the 20th century, questioned key factors that had been matters of agreement in 19th-century literary criticism: The work of art eventually reflected all these aspects, and literary critics recreated them. The ensuing debate identified a canon of the truly great works brought forth by each nation. It moved along with what philosophers called the linguistic turn: The text unfolded a meaning in the reading process. The question was, what made the literary text so special?

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The literary theorists argued that the literary criticism of the 19th century had not truly seen the text. It had concentrated on the author, his or her period, the culture that surrounded him or her, his or her psyche — factors outside the text, that had allegedly shaped it.

Strict theorists argued that even the author, hitherto considered the central figure, whose message one wanted to understand, did not even have privileged access to the meaning and significance of his or her own work. Once the text was written it began to unfold associations, no matter whether one was its author or another reader.

The theory debate stepped forth in redefinitions of its project: Formalism , New Criticism , Structuralism and Poststructuralism late s through s became the major schools. The modes of analysis changed with each of these schools. All assumed that the text had its own meaning, independent of all authorial intentions and period backgrounds. If a monkey were to use a typewriter without any understanding of his actions, he would sooner or later produce a Shakespearean sonnet among his random texts, a text whose beauty and meaning we would be able to appreciate.

Each of these schools proposed a criticism that directed its attention to an understanding of this inherent meaning. James Joyce 's Ulysses became the central text that explored the potential of the new theoretical options. The 19th-century narrator left the stage; what remained was a text one could read as a reflex of thoughts. The " stream of consciousness " [ ] replaced the authorial voice. The characters endowed with these new voices had no firm ground from which to narrate.

Their audiences had to re-create what was purposefully broken. One of the aims was to represent the reality of thoughts, sensations and conflicting perspectives. William Faulkner was particularly concerned with recreating real life, an undertaking which he said was unattainable. Once the classical authorial voice was gone, the classical composition of the text could be questioned: The argumentative structure with which a narration used to make its points lost its importance. Each sentence connected to sentences readers recalled.

Words reverberated in a worldwide circulation of texts and language. Critics would understand more of the possible allusions and supply them in footnotes. Virginia Woolf 's Mrs. User Account Log in Register Help. Informationen Deutsch als Fremdsprache. See all formats and pricing. See all formats and pricing Online. Prices are subject to change without notice.

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