Führungskonzepte - früher und heute (German Edition)

Anonymous Trump 4 months ago. Man dann hab ich es verwechselt. Mein ihr es gibt trotzdem Punkte wenn die Zitate dazu passen? View 7 more comments. Anonym Anonym 4 months ago. Hast da etwas vertauscht muss: No Name 24 4 months ago. Muss man die Zitate immer ausschreiben oder kann man einfach die Zeilenangabe hinschreiben? Anonymous Dice 4 months ago. Also diese 10 Punkte ganz am Ende oder ist das eher weniger wichtig?

View 11 more comments. Anonymer Schlumpf 4 months ago. Anonymous Space Invader 4 months ago. Mouse 1 4 months ago. Anonymer Nutzer 4 months ago. Ich finde es wird nicht so ganz klar, was man als Grundlage nehmen soll. Anonymer Stuhl 60 4 months ago. Das kann man aber dann ggf. View 5 more comments. Anonymous Package 4 months ago. Hat sonst noch jemand eine Idee dazu? Die Werte beziehen sich ja schon auf die Erwartungen. Anonymous Pistol 4 months ago.

Lernt ihr diese Tabelle zum Grundansatz der Kontingenztheorien? View 4 more comments. Lukas Trump 0 4 months ago. Anonymous Banana 4 months ago. Ich habe mal die Zeit gestoppt. Anonymous Jester 4 months ago. Du hast 4 Mediatoren das sind Wirkungsmechanismen Aufmerksamkeitsrichtung, Anstrengungs, Ausdauer und Entwicklung der Handlungsstrategie , die die Arbeits- Leistung steuern. Ich komme gerade nicht weiter. Anonymous Ferris Wheel 4 months ago.

Anonymous Compact Disc 4 months ago. Die Attributionstheorie habe ich verstanden: David Ogilvy 4 months ago. Jede Dimension wird mit Ja odwer Nein beantwortet. Ich dachte das Vorrangigkeitsprinzip gilt nur bei Maslow und nicht auch bei Herzberg? Anonymous Moon 4 months ago. Last shared documents Anonymous User shared last document 4 months ago. Go to documents overview. Digitale Karteikarten zum Skript.

Seiten ausgeschlossen View 14 more comments. Max Mustermann 14 4 months ago. Anonymous Noodle Soup 4 months ago. Sie funktionieren wie eine Konto-Nummer. Jede Person kann die Transaktionen nachverfolgen. Innerhalb von Sekunden hast du Zugriff auf alle Transaktionen. Die sind nur teilweise transparent. Was kritisiert wird, ist aber, dass niemand weiss, was da zwei oder mehrere Personen miteinander abwickeln.

Wo ist hier die Kontrolle? Und hier muss man sich sehr wohl ausweisen. Es gibt allerdings einen Graubereich und hier ist die Kritik berechtigt: Man kann derzeit bei Bitcoin-Transfers nicht genau feststellen, ob ich wirklich Robby bin, vor allem wenn es Bitcoin-zu-Bitcoin Transfers sind. Die Stimmen, die das Bargeld abschaffen wollen, sind allerdings nicht besonders laut. Denn es ist schon interessant, dass die Franken-Banknote 62 Prozent des gesamten Schweizer Geldes ausmacht. Wo zirkulieren diese Banknoten? Online jedenfalls kann man sie nicht finden. Die Finanzmarktaufsicht, beziehungsweise das Ministerium des jeweiligen Landes.

Das funktioniert inzwischen sehr gut. Sie sind also bereits zu einem volkswirtschaftlichen Faktor geworden.

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Ich kenne niemanden, der seinen Lohn in Bitcoin oder Ethereum ausbezahlt bekommt. Niemand dachte, dass das Internet viel mehr kann und ganze Branchen umkrempeln wird. Mit der Blockchain-Technologie ist es heute genauso. Deshalb habe ich auch die Initiative ReturnonSociety gestartet. Was macht dich so zuversichtlich, dass Blockchain allen einen Nutzen bringt?

Im Januar forderte der Britische Premierminister eine zweite Bankenrettung. Warum sollen marode Banken gerettet werden? Dieses Gegenkonzept wird sich langfristig durchsetzen. Wenn nur drei, vier Personen mitmachen, hat das noch keinen Effekt. Bei Millionen von Menschen schon. Im Energiebereich haben die Platzhirsche zurzeit noch eine Monopol-Stellung. Das Auto selber wird die Firma sein.

Es liefert eine Leistung, indem es mich von A nach B bringt, sich selber wartet und Einkommen generiert. Es muss nicht immer Geld sein. Das Internet der Dinge ist schon da. Unsere Zukunft wird in Asien entschieden werden, nicht in Europa. Dort leben die meisten Menschen. Ein weiteres Projekt, das mich interessiert ist Islamic Banking. Der Koran verbietet, Geld zu Spekulationszwecken zu nutzen, es darf nur als Tauschmittel eingesetzt werden. Doch auch Blockchain wird nutzerfreundlicher werden und ich bin sicher, bald werden wir gar nicht mehr merken, dass wir Blockchain benutzen.

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Wo gibt es einen gesellschaftlichen Mehrwert? Und dann klug mit der Blockchain-Technologie umgehen. Robby Schwertner ist Autor bei www. Doch Erfolg besteht bekanntlich zu 99 Prozent aus Schweiss. Stellen wir ihr also ein paar Fragen. Ich arbeite bei Bussmann Advisory , die auf dieses Thema spezialisiert sind. Und ausserdem braucht es ein gutes Team, das die ICO abwickeln kann. Weiter muss das neue Produkt oder der neue Service bereits eine grosse Anzahl Nutzer haben. Die haben viel Erfahrung mit ICO. Ganz wichtig ist, dass Blockchain wirklich der Kern des Business Case ist.

Gerade in den Smart Contracts steckt ein grosses Potenzial. Mit Smart Contracts kann der gesamte Prozess beschleunigt, vereinfacht, und transparenter gestaltet werden. Dies wirkt sich auch positiv auf die Kosten aus. Es ist deshalb sehr wichtig, dass die Temperatur in den Containern im vorgeschriebenen Bereich bleibt. Sie melden laufend die Temperatur im Container, die sich auch selber regulieren kann.

Das ganze System basiert auf Smart-Contracts, d. Ja, so ist es. Das geht heute nicht mehr. Nehmen wir ein Token mit einem Wert von Franken. Man spricht dann von einem kurzfristigen Cash out. Nein, ICO ist keine schnelle Geschichte. Es dauert sechs bis neun Monate, um den Prozess und einen Smart Contract aufzusetzen.

Die Investoren sind zwar oft weit weg, vielleicht in Korea. Man braucht ein Token, das die Leute unbedingt haben wollen. Was sagst du dazu? Deshalb sind gute Beraterinnen und Berater sehr wichtig. Sie reden bei der Entwicklung der jungen Firma mit und helfen, die richtigen Spezialisten zu finden.

Was aber klar ist: Blockchain ist mehr als ein Buzz-Word. Es wird ganze Branchen umkrempeln und in Zukunft einen grossen Einfluss auf unser Leben haben. Deshalb sollten alle wissen, worum es bei Blockchain und ICO geht. Beispiel eines Nutzungs-Tokens ist der von storj. The happiness quotient amongst people seems to be diminishing at an alarming rate both in the developed and developing world. Have you ever paused and wondered why? A pressing problem is that currently our educational institutions are designing and implementing curricula that are highly competitive and at least partially inhibit room for creativity , instilling a linear thought process, and thus churning out individuals who may be have gone through formal education paths but lack the ability to tackle the present day challenges that the world is facing.

In essence, the current world system does not enable people to create and especially co-create. Being a part of a global educational revolution in learning, it is our endeavor at STRIDE to bring learning back to where it is supposed to be: The unDiploma in Entrepreneurial Leadership uDEL is essentially an eight-month incubator for re-connecting with yourself, connecting to others and jointly bringing something into the world. It entails sensing and experimenting with different ways of world-making, co-creation and prototyping. From it startups, campaigns, intrapreneurial projects or other types of interventions can emerge — including starting your own company.

The programme further encompasses building and facilitating collaborations and engaging in a process of personal transformation through e. It is increasingly a common phenomenon today wherein you are not certain if you are in the right job and hence are in need of orientation in the desired direction. The program thus empowers individuals to take the next steps towards a meaningful career.

Furthermore you can benefit from other STRIDE offers and the growing network of purpose driven professionals who want to make a difference. For more information on these and other innovative programs please visit our website , or write us to: Jahrhundert vor neue lokale und globale Herausforderungen. Miteinander bedeutet aber auch ein gutes Zusammenspiel der Generationen am Arbeitsplatz.

Beides ist gut und wichtig. Schon wieder das Wort: Daher braucht es Austausch — was ist wem beim Teamwork wichtig, wie und von wo will derjenige arbeiten allein und im Team und warum macht der andere das auf diese und nicht meine Weise. Man muss es wollen — das Miteinander! Weitere Informationen zum Anlass gibt es hier. Dominik Georgi von der Hochschule Luzern. Wenn mein soziales Umfeld auch Sharing betreibt und es gut findet, wenn ich Sharing betreibe, dann mache ich eher mit bei Sharing-Initiativen.

Nur wenn ich den andere Beteiligten an der Sharing-Initiative und ggf. Dadurch entsteht automatisch ein Mehrwert, wenn man das Auto gemeinsam nutzt. Besonders spannend finde ich die Erkenntnis aus meiner Forschung, dass es sich bei der kollaborativen Wirtschaft eher um Netzwerke als um eine soziale Bewegung handelt. Auf nationaler Ebene steht man hingegen ganz noch am Anfang. All dies ginge aber nicht ohne die vielen Projekte kollaborativer Wirtschaft.

Dies aber nur dann, wenn die Modelle so angelegt sind, dass sie Spekulation verhindern. Dieses Jobprofil zieht vor allem Frauen an, die sich im letzten Teil ihrer Berufslaufbahn befinden. Aber das hat nicht viel mit der Art von Feel Good Management zu tun, von der ich spreche. Ich beginne zu verstehen, ein Vorurteil muss trotzdem noch auf den Tisch: Carmen nimmt die Herausforderung lachend an und kontert mit einem Satz: Carmen grinst und meint: Und was ist mit der HR-Abteilung? Er hat andere Kernaufgaben und das ist auch gut so.

Mich kitzelt trotz allem noch immer die Ursprungsfrage und ich hake nach: Dann gibt es aber auch unterschiedliche Schwerpunkte, die von Office-Management zu Organisationsentwicklung reichen. So fasst Carmen Fries die hiesige Situation in Worte. Im Jahr waren es in Deutschland 33 ausgeschriebene Stellen, im waren es Aber ich kann versprechen, dass man mit dieser Ausbildung so oder so viel gewinnt.

Eine standardisierte Ausbildung gibt es bislang weder in Deutschland noch in der Schweiz. Es reichte mir Word zu benutzen oder etwa die News online zu lesen. Was hat sich getan in den letzten drei Jahren? Hier ein paar kurze Antworten auf die drei brennendsten Fragen. Interessanterweise ist die Erfahrung von Menschen, die z.

Sie sind teilweise frustriert, weil die straffen Meeting-Prozesse klar regeln, wer wann etwas einbringen oder sprechen darf. Reden darf nur derjenige, der an der Reihe ist, wenn explizit um die Meinung der anderen gebeten oder jemand direkt angesprochen wird.

Den Meisten erschliesst sich erst mit einiger Distanz und nach Abklingen der ersten Frustration, was den Sinn und Zweck dieser Regeln ausmacht: Es gibt auch in Holacracy eine Hierarchie, allerdings eine Hierarchie sinngesteuerter Arbeit und nicht eine Hierarchie von Menschen. So gibt es die Dimension der Unternehmung , welche sich mit rechtlichen Rahmen einer Organisation befasst. Ob das getan wird, oder nicht hat nichts mit Holacracy zu tun. Holacracy ist keine Wunderwaffe und kann wie jedes andere System umgangen werden.

Von der Ratifizierung bis zur einer routinierten und sicheren Praxis dauert es in der Regel mindestens zwei Jahre. Eine Herausforderung dabei ist es, alte Verhaltensmuster zu verlernen und neue zu erlernen. We need a culture of dialogue. For organizations, diversity is recognized as being good for returns on equity, although not necessarily in a directly causal way.

It has, however, been observed that when companies commit themselves to diverse leadership, they are more successful. And—a perhaps less recognized factor—organizations that embrace inclusivity which is the action-focused part of the diversity discussion are more attractive to employees, especially when they know their company is committing time and money to inclusivity. We talk about inclusion in order to activate our attempts to support diversity but, as scholar Dr.

This insight may partly explain why, in looking at various socially diverse groups, a Scientific American article cited the existence of: And what is a purposeful story, after all, if not a powerful instigator of change? There are no quick answers; there is no check-list or road-map. I had to fight the urge myself. Because, at least in the case of embracing diversity and inclusion, every team and every individual is unique. So dialogue is critical. In doing so, we may discover that the Muslim in our group sees their dyslexia rather than their hijab as their biggest personal challenge for inclusion in the team.

We can also gather information about whose voices may not be represented, or who may be being overlooked within in our team. An exercise in reframing difference. Draw an iceberg with its tip above the water. This is the stuff most often in our realm of conscious thought. Check out this Danish TV advertisement for more on reframing difference: In business, time is money, but in order to creative diversity and inclusion and beyond, we must invest … Building diverse teams takes patience. A lot of patience. The challenge for those of us working with a diverse group of people is to find ways to connect, to make the specifics of our very different strengths and skills and experiences relevant or known to somebody else, by tapping into the themes that are shared.

For some groups, this discussion may take much longer than for others, as people will have different cultural approaches and expectations when it comes to sharing personal views and core values. To that end, it pays to actively create opportunities such as lunchtime talks for educating ourselves about areas of difference.

We have discussed some of the more obvious areas of difference such as skin colour, gender, nationality, sexual orientation, age, or socioeconomic difference but there are many opportunities to investigate less obvious areas of difference, such as: We can educate ourselves, and we can do the work to investigate our beliefs and our attitudes towards others. Communication is an especially ripe area for growth, as it is our interface with others. A lot can be gained from learning listening skills , and practicing mindfulness to become more present when we are in conversation with others.

We can certainly invest in educating ourselves about different communication styles direct and indirect communication , for example in order to be able to let go of our expectations and our attachment to outcomes. And we can investigate ways to manage conflict how to move away from hostility towards productive conflict, and conflict resolution.

There has been more than one corporate scandal with epic proportions leaving us wonder about the future of our world. Essays in hermeneutics II, Evanston , Iser, The act of reading, Baltimore-London An example of a philosophical reading of a key text in Western spirituality is the exegesis of De theologica mystica by Ben Schomakers. The attention that philosophy paid for the historical dimension of spir- ituality has different levels.

Many studies are dedicated to philosophers who were masters in spirituality as well: He finds this basic structure in apophatic discourse E. Levinas, Beyond the verse, Bloomington-Indianapolis , Waaijman, Tegendraads lezen, Kampen Ben Schomakers , Kampen Shahan , Norwan ; M. An intellectual biography of the seventeenth century philoso- pher and mystic, New York Blumenthal wrote a monography on Maimonides and Hoter ben Shelomo: Studies in rational religion, Ramat Gan Goldammer, Paracelsus in neuen Horizonten, Wiesbaden ; J.

Coudert, Leibnitz and the Kabbalah, Dordrecht-London Botting, Spirituality and time, Cambridge But also a critical analysis of contemporary spirituality — of course in a historical perspective — is important. First of all, philosophy does not only offer insights in spiritual processes, it can also be considered as a spiritual process in itself. In this way the Cartesian Meditations can be understood as a spiritual exercise.

Duclow, Masters of learned ignorance: Rungaldier, Philosophie der Esoterik, Stuttgart ; W. Hanegraaff, New Age religion and Western culture: Esotericism in the mirror of secular thought, Leiden Neumann, Natura sagax, die geistige Natur: Gno- sis und Mystik in der Geschichte der Philosophie Ed. International Philosophical Quarterly 45 no. Hadot, Exercises spirituels et philosophie antique, Paris ; W.

Schmid, Philosophie der Lebenskunst: Eine Grundlegung, Frankfurt a. Weltweisheit, Lebensform, Wissenschaft, Frankfurt a. Shusterman, Philosophie als Lebenspraxis, Berlin Tijdschrift voor Filosofie 64 no. Een situering van het werk van Otto Duintjer, in: It provided the main principle of structuring spiritual transformation: Spiritual processes need orientation and direction. In this point, research has been done by Diet- mar Mieth, studying Eckhart, and philosophers inspired by the ethical appeal in the works of Levinas.

Journal of Moral Education 32 no. Meyer , Darmstadt ; H. Schrey, Dialogisches Denken, Darmstadt For the phenomenology see E. Stein, On the problem of empathy, The Hague Herrigel, Das neue Denken, Berlin ; F. Rosenzweig, Kleinere Schriften, Berlin , Waaijman, De mystiek van ik en jij: Levinas, Totality and infinity, Pittsburgh As a rule these texts are gathered up in collec- tions and on places treated with special care and respect. Spiritualities provide their practioners not only by texts, but also by reading procedures, fostering the transformative impact of these texts.

They develop ways of understanding and appropriation. From a linguistic and literary point of view, scholars are, already for decades, studying spiritual writings: In his search for a definition of mysticism Joseph Dan states: A literary approach of texts calls for a specific modus operandi.

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In text-research we are dealing with the constitu- tion, description, interpretation and pragmatics of linguistical utterances with a view to the experience conveyed in them. Bocken, Waarheid en interpretatie: Perspectieven op het conjecturele denken van Nicolaus Cusanus , Maastricht ; Idem, De kunst van het verzamelen: Buber, De geschiedenis van het moderne individu, Kampen , Encyclopedie van de mystiek, ; H.

Studies in Spirituality 3 , Sandaeus, Pro theologia mystica clavis, Heverlee Orig. From the 18th century on, in reaction to the fragmentation into spe- cial hermeneutics, the study of general hermeneutics was launched. It was Friedrich Schleiermacher who raised the question concerning the possibility of and conditions for understanding Verstehen as such. The development of hermeneutics, very important for the study of spirituality, has resulted in a flood of literature. Firstly, writing is a process of fixation: This process leaves behind a number of open spaces: Com- parative Literature 8 , Dhar, Mysticism in lit- erature, New Delhi ; A.

Haas, Mystik als Aussage: Erfahrungs-, Denk- und Redeformen christlicher Mystik, Frankfurt a. Plouvier , Paris ; M. Sells, Mystical languages of unsaying, Chicago etc. Thiselton, New horizons in hermeneutics, London , ; J. Ricoeur, From text to action, Evanston , This transformation is caused by activities of the reader which are indispensable: The reader, as long as he really performs the text, receives the meaning of the text by composing it.

The first movement is that of the tradition which as a result of temporal distance pres- ents itself as being opposite and strange. The second movement is that of the interpreter who anticipates the meaning which governs his understanding of the text. Understanding is the fusion of these horizons. The challenge is to integrate these insights in a design of spiritual hermeneutics.

Texts are connected with specific competencies and roles. In tradi- tional cultures writers or poets are supposed to be inspired by God. Particularly cal- ligraphy can be a spiritual exercise. In all these examples texts are evoking specific roles and competencies. His role was strongly focussed on the true content of the text, in this case the bib- lical text.

Particularly in the protestant tradition this role concept was an essen- tial element in worship and ministry. Gadamer, Truth and method, New York Hartley, Spirituality explored with the help of calligraphy, Leek ; A. Schimmel, Callig- raphy and Islamic culture, New York This facilitator should, of course, have some insights in the content, the background and the composition of the text.

But most of all he or she should be equipped with the competency of listening and empathy, so that the reading community comes in contact with the Word of God, on a level of experience. From a literary perspective words unfold their meaning as a complex sys- tem of denotative and connotative signals. Semantic research tries to decipher this complex reality. Denotative meanings are studied in semantic research, resulting in etymology and description of the basic meaning. The range of this category is enormous, including the movement of the spirit ruach and the inner dimension of the mind nous.

Etymology in lived spirituality has the ten- dency to isolate itself from intertextual, co-textual and contextual meanings. Therefore the study of spirituality has to be critical on this point. Connotative meaning unfolds itself in a network of textual relationships. In the first place this meaning is produced by the direct co-text in which a word is used. Spiritual keywords like union with God, desert, prayer, soul, dark night etc. For the meaning of a word within the works of a writer concordantic research remains indispensable.

A second source of connotative meaning is the rich network of intertextual relationships and strategies: To mention only one example, words in Jewish mystical texts are ununderstandable without the continuous presence of the Torah at the back- ground. Bianchi, God ontmoeten in zijn Woord: Guinan, To be human before God: Insights from biblical spirituality, Collegeville ; T. Hall, Too deep for words: Rediscovering lectio divina, New York ; C.

A new read- ing of the Bible, New York ; P. Toon, The art of meditating on Scripture: Understanding your faith, renewing your mind, knowing your God, Grand Rapids Brown, Text and psyche: Experiencing Scripture today, London Kugel, Prayers that cite Scripture, London A visual fabric is optically so structured that the signs, differing in shape handwriting, print etc. An auditive textual fabric is acoustically so shaped that signs manifest themselves in sound alliteration, assonance, rhyme etc.

A tac- tile fabric demarcates itself by way of rises and dips, a more or less even back- ground. Written texts are made available by an agency publishing company, print shop, book store etc. Particularly the ways scrolls are written, books are edited and preserved, pages are illuminated, are important signs of spirituality.

The study of spirituality has not paid systematic attention to the material dimensions of the literary traditions of texts. From the time on that spirituality and mysticism were challenged to develop their own language on behalf of the articulation of the process of spir- itual transformation, the best of their representatives used their language in an excellent way. They were exceptionally creative in forging the language appro- priate for the unique character of their experience. Four aspects are to be men- tioned in the field of art and literature.

First, the aspect of form. A literary approach profiles in sources of spiritual- ity their narrative beauty, their poetical splendour, their dramatic potential and their metaphysical depth. Thus, a sharpened eye will discover also the mystical dimension in poems. On the one hand all literature speaks of the human condition and therefore touches on its spiritual dimension. Spiritual persons speak the same language as other people.

On the other hand, spirituality creates its own alternative modes of language, each of which needs a grammar of See, for instance, the paradigmatic study of J. Het verschijnsel Gerrit Achterberg, als mens met een han- dicap, dichter en mysticus, Culemborg ; J. Spiritual writers use images and metaphors. Ruusbroec uses the metaphor of the mirror to show spiritual reality, and how it works. Fourth, the imaginative power. Every written text captivates the reader as long as she or he really reads. At the centre of the interdisciplinarity of literary sciences and spirituality is the corpus of spiritual texts.

This corpus contains different genres: These genres ask for an appro- priate interpretation. Apart from the genre differences, spiritual texts, as all texts, need a truthful presentation: This contrast makes the signs readable. Der Christ der Zukunft: Ein Mys- tiker Ed. Gordan , Salzburg , Recherches de Science Religieuse 64 , Ons Geestelijk Erf 57 , Often the first pub- lishers were simultaneously interpreters who sought to escape condemnation from the side of orthodoxy.

From Migne onward, editors attempted to produce critical editions of the sources of spirituality. In the 20th century important text-critical editions were provided, whether in a series e. As a rule text-critical editions limit themselves to the reconstruction of the so- called authentic text: The first ten- sion: Second, texts are in a continual transition from surface into depth structure. De wetenschap van het lezen: Tien jaar theorie der lite- raire receptie Ed.

From text to action, , esp. Levinas, Otherwise than being or beyond essence, Pittsburgh There are three corpora of texts concerning spiritual processes, where literary studies and the study of spirituality meet one another. The first corpus is the collection of mystical texts. Mystical texts reflect, in many cases directly, mystical experiences and processes of mystical transforma- tion.

At the same time they create for the interested reader entrances into the field of mysticism. In this process of initiation, which they mediate, they have a mystagogical function. The practice of reading itself is a spiritual process: Floristan , New York-Edinburgh Questions of interpretation and method, London , 58, , ; M. Concilium 19 , ; Andere structuren, andere heiligen: Het veranderende beeld van de heilige in de Middeleeuwen Ed.

Vellekoop , Utrecht Chooi, A psychobiographical approach to interpreting hagiography: An exploratory case study of St. Edwards, Living in the presence: Spiritual exer- cises to open your life to the awareness of God, San Francisco ; Wyschogrod, Saints and post- modernism. Studies in hagiography and biography Ed. Binfield , Sheffield The practice of spiritual reading provides a blueprint of a spiritual hermeneutic. Intensive reading of a text has such a transforma- tive influence on the reader, that she or he becomes a writer.

In spiritual tradi- tions writers are mostly readers. The texts they loved have given them the inner language to articulate their experience. From this perspective spiritual texts are essentially intertextual. Texts are more and more taken as a relational network, on different levels. Firstly, texts delineate themselves against the background of other, earlier texts. Every text is the re-weaving of a slumbering texture that is again made current in a writing. Some acts of the reader are indispensable, as we have seen: Scripture yearns for the being — personally — touched of the reading subject.

At this very moment, the person awakens in hearing the voice of God, which creates an immediate relation with the reader. The study of spirituality develops strategies for this cross-textual reading. The Blackwell companion to Christian spirituality Ed. Entering this field of research, one may be confronted by a lot of questions.

What is the drive behind this enterprise? Is it politics, religion, or ethics: Or is it curiosity and entertainment: In whose interests is the history contracted? How to gather a trustful documentation? How to select in the enormous amount of data? All these questions are mutatis mutandis relevant for the history of spirituality. Is this kind of research aimed at nourishment, ori- entation, formation, or information?

Is it to strengthen the main line and the power centre of a tradition or is it to give voice to the voiceless people margin- alized, oppressed, lay people, women etc. How to measure the difference between mainstream spirituality and dissidents? The Benedictine monks of the Congregation of St.

At the same time the Bollandists wrote from on their Acta Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntur, an impressive repository of spiritual biographies. In the nineteenth century the source criticism of Ranke caused a complete transformation of the science of history. In the beginning a strong opposition was sometimes felt against the historical approach.

Legends and myths were unmasked as products of a particular lived spirituality. Gradually in the 19th and the 20th century, spirituality has integrated historical research. One of the most important insights in the history of spirituality was the grow- ing awareness that the historical context itself belongs to lived spirituality.

Spir- ituality does not exist on some ideal plane above and beyond history, as a pure form. Spirituality is dialectically interwoven with the cultural context, in a field of tension between continuity and discontinuity. As Michel de Certeau has strik- ingly described: Sheldrake, Spirituality and history; Id. Berg , Werl Although the discipline of history in the course of the 20th century has become more practical, concentrating itself on concrete areas of research, theo- retical questions are still there. The philosophy of history, trying to read and to interpret human history, is confronted with a complex of questions.

Particularly in the 19th century philosophers tried to determine the direction of evolution and history Hegel, Marx, Buckle, Darwin, Comte, Spengler, Toynbee etc. The question is whether this ambition is realistic. Thirdly, after the raise of historicism from the 19th century on, stressing the historicity of revelation and faith, some historians explored the limits of this worldview. Speling 59 no. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Kerkgeschiedenis 6 , Tijdschrift voor de geschiedenis van het katholieke leven in de Nederlanden 6 no.

Baier , Darmstadt , From a historical perspective, professions come to the fore as roles and models against the background of the socio-cultural context. Historical research of spirituality reflects these processes. The majority of stud- ies are dedicated to traditional models: The lives of monks and moniales, brothers and sisters, missionaries and founders, priests and bishops are dominating in the historical scene. Basically, after Vatican II the distribution of spiritual roles changed dramati- cally.

The new trend became: In this context, a critical eye is needed to discern between different processes of socialization, interiorization, and role-taking.

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In other times, the same words have a marginal- ized position. New contexts create new meanings. An historical view discovers the referential, contextual, and diachronic aspects in spiritual vocabularies. Ankersmit, Sublime historical experience, Stanford A biographical approach, New York-London , Downey , Collegeville MN , Particular in his- torical critical research this referential perspective is important. All modern ref- erence works give information about the reality words are pointing at. In these words, a spiritual world is opened up, spiritual dimensions of our being in the world.

Historical contexts create new words and load old words with new meanings. Diachronically seen, the referential and contextual meanings show a history of transformations in the spiritual vocabulary. Already in the 19th century, scholars react upon idealistic interpreta- tions of history. Buckle points at the influences of the material world upon his- tory: Marx showed how the evolution of society is conditioned by the economic circumstances of its existence: Weber brought to the fore the relation between the raise of Protestantism and Capitalism.

It took more than a century before this perspective broke through in the his- tory of spirituality. The liberation spiritualities in Latin America, Africa and Asia unveiled the socio-economic implications of forms of spirituality. The basic com- munities discovered the socio-economic dimension of spirituality. Tinsley, The French expression for spirituality and devotion, New York Church 1 , Mbuy-Beya , Maryknoll NY In spirituality, images take many shapes and perform many functions.

Painting and icons, sculptures and reliefs, architecture and stained glass, music and dance — a great variety of images has been developed in the history of spir- ituality. Similarly, they performed a multiplicity of functions: Impressive research has been done by historians to document and to recon- struct the successive periods of spiritual arts. Regarding Christian spirituality extensive studies of almost all periods are available.

Moreover, there is the seven volume reference work Lexikon der christliche Ikonographie, not only offering iconographic documentation but also iconological insights. Sexson, Ordinarily sacred, Charlottesville Orig.: Snelling , Leicester ; S. Jung, We are home: A spirituality of the envi- ronment, New York ; R. Taylor, The search for a sacred place: Essays toward a spirituality of nature, Ann Arbor MI Whatever may be the self-understanding of the historian — history as the representation of facts or the hermeneutic of historical tracks, or something in between — historical research is strongly bound with texts.

Of course, there are archaeological sources seals, coins, bones, building etcetera , but without writ- ten documents the history of spirituality cannot be thought.

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For biblical spiri- tuality, for instance, the historical-critical approach has unfolded a completely new dimension of the Bible. From a historical perspective texts are sources, to be interpreted and evaluated critically. This is the precise point where the his- tory of spirituality interdisciplinarily is linked with literary sciences. It is the combination of literary and historical approaches which brought forth such great historians as Scholem, Dan, Idel, Leclercq, McGinn, Ruh and others. Interesting is the historical approach of texts itself.

As a rule text-critical edi- tions try to reconstruct the so-called authentic text. The discipline of history is related to the histories of human life in the broadest sense. The history of spirituality is part of this phenomenon. Looking back on the great scientific historiographies in the field of spirituality of the last century, we observe a widening of the horizons. In four volumes, the author treats the history of Catholic spirituality, starting with the Christian spirituality and at the end strongly focussing on French spirituality.

Historia de la Espiritualidad , again in four volumes, treats non-Chris- tian forms of spirituality Judaism, Islam, Gnosis, Hellenism, and so forth and pays also attention to modern atheism. World Spirituality , presenting itself as An Encyclopedic History of the Religious Quest, does not limit itself to the dominant traditions Hinduism, Bud- dhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam and so on , but deals extensively with indige- nous spiritualities and the secular quest together 7 volumes. Here, the histor- ical discipline has widened its scope to the study of religion.

One may say that the scientific historiography in the field of spiritu- ality is flourishing, although studies on primordial spirituality indigenous, lay and secular spirituality are still in a beginning stage. Normally, the historical research of spirituality is hesitating to go fur- ther than an accurate description of spiritual forms lives, movements, schools, figures etc. It scarcely dares to enter the interior horizon of these forms, their transformative power, and the way the divine-human relation takes shape in and through a concrete form, notwithstanding the fact that Hausherr already in the s stressed that one should necessary interpret the spiritual dimension, incar- nated in this concrete spiritual form of life — of course after the determination of the historical data.

Studies in Spirituality 7 , At the one extreme, especially in the 19th century, historical theories tried to place the different spiritualities within a historical frame of world history in fact a Western frame. But also in the 20th century scholars tried to think the togetherness of spiritualities. Franz Rosenzweig argues that Judaism is intrinsi- cally related with Christianity, both going the way to the Kingdom of God. This approach is rooted in the recognition that spirituality is Talal Asad, Genealogies of religions, Baltimore MD , cited by Barnes, in: Rosenzweig, Star of redemption, London McIntosh, Mystical theology, Oxford , 5.

Williams, On Christian theology, Oxford Origins to the twelfth century, London World Spirituality 16 , xv; see also Id. Apart from methodology, anthropology conceives spirituality as a universal human quest, significant for the human enterprise as a whole. Anthropology is a multilayered discipline. Firstly, it was used in the philosophical faculties of the German universities at the end of the 16th century. It attempted to regroup the specialized disciplines within a common purpose: In the 18th century the discipline splitted into physical anthropology investigating the place of man in nature, comparing himself with other primates and interpreting the race differences and cultural anthropology considering man as a social being individualized by historical and geographical factors.

Spiritual anthropology emerged within cultural anthropology. Long times studies on spirituality were ignored. The Blackwell companion to Christian spirituality, 26; with a reference to J. Breton, Approche contemporaine de la vie spirituelle, Mon- treal Discourse and the surplus of meaning, Fort Worth , Anthropology of Consciousness 17 no. Turner , Urbana ; B. Journal of Anthropological Research 39 no. Tedlock, Days from a dream almanac, Urbana In order to perceive and to understand the level of spirituality in a cul- ture, one needs a participatory attitude: On this level information is transformation.

Indeed it is perhaps only when we truly and fully participate in this way that we find this essentially subjective approach to be in no way incompatible with the more conventional rational, objective, sci- entific approach. The Age of Discovery confronted the modern West with cultures that remained outside its horizon.

Firstly, anthropology could not remain insensitive for its own presuppositions. Particularly the philosophical anthropology was confronted with different images of man: These reflections were deeply influenced by devel- opments in the Western culture itself. This seems particularly relevant at the limits of both realities: There is a striking correlation between the themes of the death of God and the death of man; this correlation seems to verify the mutual interrelation of theol- ogy and anthropology.

By means of performance Ed. Appel , Cambridge , Bernard , Milano See also Explorations in anthropology and theology Ed. Adams , Lanham-New York-Oxford The experience of Jesus as Lord, New York , Spiritual anthropology opposed strongly against the presupposed idea that all power inevitably must be attributed to society and culture, especially as regards religion. The idea of anti-structure made it possible to understand liminal processes, including mystical transformations. Practices and professions in the field of spiritual anthropology are complicated.

Seen from the perspective of the anthropologists themselves, we may observe a very broad spectrum. At the one end, there are the anthropolo- gists who sit behind their desks and read. In between we encounter field work- ers with an objectifying approach. The new Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago etc. Turner, The ritual process: Structure and anti-structure, London Journal of Anthropological Research 47 no.

The anthropological experience Ed. Watson , San Francisco ; E.



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Selected read- ings in the anthropology of religion: Theoretical and methodological essays Eds. Flowerday , Westport CT , Firstly, many studies appeared in the field of shamanism. Secondly, there is the study of the healing practices in indige- nous spiritualities. On a purely practical level anthropologists need knowledge of the lan- guage of the people they are studying.

Often they have to make the first survey of it and to compose the first lists of words. These efforts mostly were embed- ded in the strategy of missionary activities or cultural expansion. In the anthro- pology of experience, the methodological insight emerged. The point of depar- ture should be the expressions used by people belonging to a culture: Things play an important role in shamanic performances and healing rit- uals.

In this respect the meaning of things has been studied in the anthropology of experience.