Les catholiques français sous loccupation (Documents Français) (French Edition)

In these different zones, the Occupation was not managed identically; hence, neither was the persecution policy or the manner in which repression was run. The consequences of the evolution of the military conflict also differed in these zones. Le Maner, ; L. Thiery, , or in the three others annexed in effect to the Reich P. Rigoulot, ; C. However, we shall briefly summarize the nature and effect of such policies in these particular areas — which historians have not yet finished documenting to this day.

In Alsace and Moselle, the new German authorities implemented a clear Germanization and Nazification policy from the start, aiming to incorporate these territories into the Reich permanently.

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This was to ensure that the annexation would become firmly rooted. Frenchmen from other parts of the country, etc. The racial laws in force in the Reich were soon applied, targeting the Jews of Alsace and Moselle. As regards repression, resistance to the annexation appeared immediately; later on, two German measures constituted turning-points. The first was the establishment of the Reicharbeitsdienst , or RAD, service obligatory labor service for German youth, which was actually the beginning of their military training in spring for young Alsatians; the second was obligatory military service in the German army, instated in August Draft dodgers became more and more numerous; repression was unleashed.

In addition to trials before civilian and military courts and many cases of detainment or deportation to the prisons of the different Gaus FMD, , part 2 , the Nazi authorities used policies specific to this zone, such as transferring entire French families into the Reich. Statistics have yet to be compiled, but tens of thousands of people were affected by one or the other of these policies C.

As in the occupied zone, the military administration had police and judicial powers: This situation did not change until the departure of General von Falkenhausen, which led to the appointment of a Gauleiter , but not until July 19, However, two particular convoys marked the history of repression in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais.

The first, carrying miners arrested during the May-June strikes, resulted in the arrival and registration of French deportees in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, by the end of July L. Also, approximately persons were sentenced to death, or taken hostage and shot in reprisal killings, by the Germans the Vichy authorities executed less than 10 individuals in this way. Finally, a distinctive characteristic of this zone was that arrested Gypsies were subsequently deported to Auschwitz; this was not the case in areas controlled by the MBF. Three types of protagonists played an essential part in the events: Though the objectives of the various repressors and persecutors seem convergent overall, they were not always united in their decision-making, and the policies they implemented differed.

Even the instruments they used often varied, especially as the impact of events and the evolution of the war — especially on the military level — mattered increasingly. The military command MBF was the main executive and decision-making protagonist in the northern occupied zone until the summer of Those that were found guilty served their sentence in France, or were deported to a prison in the Reich ; some were sentenced to death and shot.

The Abwehr carried out sizeable operations in the occupied zone, making large-scale arrests when its investigations allowed it to detect organized Resistance groups. Finally, there were also Wehrmacht troops in France throughout the war, of course; in the run-up to the Allied landing in Normandy, and after this took place, their repressive role became essential. In order to ensure the success of the occupation, these military protagonists were subject to the judgment and supervision of the highest authorities of the Reich , in Berlin — military, of course the OKW followed MBF policy , but especially political.

In fact, as Hitler carefully observed the situation in France, the leaders of the diplomatic services and the Nazi police forces endeavored to impose their own points of view. Most of all, Himmler sent his men to the occupied zone as soon as it had been captured. Quite soon, the gradually increasing ascendancy of the Nazi police services had to be taken into account. Their ideological objectives were a decisive element from the start, since in spite of the attribution of executive power to the MBF in , a branch of the Sipo-SD Sicherheitspolizei und Sicherheitsdienst , the SS intelligence service and State security police, which were combined into the RSHA , with about forty men, was set up in France directly after it was occupied in summer Hence, it closely observed the application of the Armistice clause requiring the French government to turn in German opponents of Nazism residing in France.

These events allow us to observe the coexistence of different German authorities, and to emphasize the necessity of clarifying the political and administrative origins of decisions. Orders from the Military Command determined the progress of anti-Jewish action, but beforehand they were essentially prepared and developed by the Sipo-SD and the German embassy. He was a young member of the SS, close to Heydrich, who already had an brilliant career in the RSHA intelligence services when he arrived in in the summer of He combined organizational talent with a pragmatic understanding of the situation in France.

From that day on, in practice, most decision-making powers in the field of repression rested with the Nazi police, and not with the MBF. The policy of deportation of the Jews of France was essentially — though not exclusively — carried out after this decisive turning-point. Thus, in the fields of repression and persecution, collaboration meant the convergence of Vichy and German interests — especially police interests — against shared enemies. Klarsfeld, ; the French literature on Vichy is profuse, see bibliography. For the first time, they were combined with the gendarmerie a military corps of policemen and the penitentiary administration within the vast Interior Ministry, where the Milice men took hierarchical positions involving more and more authority.

The Vichy State was evolving, but only toward a higher degree of radicalization; this did not constitute a change in its nature D. Repression and persecution benefited from most of the French State apparatus, which had been made even more efficient by the efforts made to centralize it within an authoritarian State.

Peschanski, , ; D. Bancaud, ; and others. Thus, in spite of this variety of protagonists, who designed different policies and processes of repression and persecution, the choice of their targets, and eventually of their victims, was more a matter of consensus than of conflict. This did not evolve in any significant way during the occupation, either on the German or on the French side. However, the evolution of the war and the upsurge of the Resistance radicalized the foundation of this initial struggle even further. Eismann, , and others. Ideology was obviously crucial in the anti-Semitic policy carried out in France against a Jewish population estimated at just over , in summer , but it also played an essential role in orienting repression, especially since in both fields, the Vichy regime had the same enemies as the Germans.

This was linked to a particular interpretation of the [] defeat, which was not explained as the result of military blunders, or even of short-term policies, but rather of the decay of the Republic [the nature of the French political system], which had necessarily led to the downfall of the country and, therefore, to its defeat. These forces were designated as Communists, Jews, foreigners, and freemasons. Henceforth, in order to rebuild the country it was no use fighting against the occupying forces, since defeat was a mere symptom of the problem, not its cause. Hence, they soon complained of lack of enthusiasm in this fight on the part of some of the French police forces, at least in the struggle against non-Communist Resistance.

The key works to refer to on the subject are those of S. Though over three-quarters of French Jews were fortunately still alive when the occupation ended, over 74, of them had been deported from occupied France excepting the Nord-Pas de Calais , mostly to the Auschwitz and Sobibor camps; Less than 1, of them were deported on convoys comprising a majority of persons arrested due to repression measures. To that total, we must add estimated numbers of Jews who died in French internment camps 3, according to S. Klarsfeld and in massacres on French territory probably 1, according to the same author, especially at the end of the German occupation, at Saint-Genis-Laval and Bron, on August 20 and 21 respectively.

The persecution policy did not lead to the deportation of Gypsies from France, except for a few dozens of them on the January 24, convoy to Sachsenhausen. Denis Peschanski estimates that approximately 3, Gypsies were detained in the Vichy government camps during the occupation D. The first victims of repression policy were the persons shot after being sentenced to death by German military courts; recent research has determined that around 2, people were executed following a death sentence issued in the areas under MBF authority or in the southern zone J. French military courts in charge of trying Communists and anarchists took about a dozen lives.

Finally, the perspective of an Allied landing and of the subsequent end to the occupation of France led the German troops to commit atrocities against maquisards Resistance guerrilla fighters and civilians: Between and , a total of at least , people were killed — either shot, in massacres or after being deported from France — due to the persecution and repression policies carried out in the northern and southern zones.

Charts representing the numbers of persons executed by firing squad and deported from occupied France excluding the zone administered from Brussels and the annexed zone. Please bear in mind that the scales of magnitude involved are not identical.

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Personns executed by firing squad after au death sentence July - August Jewish personns deported in the "Final Solution" convoys March - August Hostages executed through reprisal measures September - October Personns arrested due to repression measures and deported to concentration camps or prisons in the Reich August - November We will consider five main steps of this heavy toll paid by France in terms of human life, its evolution, as well as the different processes that explain it.

Thus, this article is an attempt to summarize these events based on a chronology, which is quite limited by the deficiencies and the imbalance of the existing historiography. Each event described is followed by one to three stars, according to our degree of knowledge of it. Thus, in most cases we have indicated two or three stars; for the purposes of this article, the difference between these two options is essentially linked to our knowledge of the mechanisms of events, rather than to memories of them, which are often considerable. The groundwork of the anti-Jewish policy was also quickly laid, both on the German and the French sides.

Hence, strict repressive measures were quickly put into place in order to keep the peace and enforce the law in an area considered strategic for the rest of the war, both economically France had huge resources and militarily in view of the invasion of Great Britain. From the end of , the MBF made use of administrative internment measures especially in the fort of Romainville; Th.

Fontaine, and of collective reprisal measures — these were essentially financial penalties, hostage executions were not carried out as planned R. All in all, from June to the end of July , just over death sentences were issued by these military courts, one quarter of which were carried out. Most of the anti-Jewish legislation was passed during the first year of occupation. The first mass round-up took place as early as May in. German penal law officially became applicable in occupied French territory.

The first person to be shot in was Jacques Bonsergent, who was executed on December 23, after he was arrested for his anti-German attitude J. On July 22, the Vichy government had promulgated a law annulling the naturalization of foreigners C. The Nazi anti-Jewish policy was established; its objectives were the exclusion of Jews and the confiscation of their property particularly through the October 18 decree.

In the occupied zone, many Communist activists were arrested by the Vichy police J. On the rue Saint-Dominique, in , the trial of several members of the Nemrod intelligence network began before the Gross Greater court; it was one of the first trials of a resistance group. All of the accused were condemned to death, though only three were eventually shot: The first of the three biggest mass round-ups of Jews of the year was carried out by the French police in , upon a request from the German occupying authorities.

Beaune-la-Rolande and Pithiviers S. The Vichy authorities also carried out a census of the Jews and their property, in both zones.

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The records thus produced allowed later arrests to be made. This tendency had begun previously, before the series of attacks against its soldiers: In spite of genuine achievements on the part of the French police, and its obvious efficiency in the fight against Communism J. The MBF courts condemned nearly people to death between August and May ; three-quarters of these sentences of carried out, compared to only a quarter of them during the preceding period G. Alternatively, they had to give up the case to a civilian or military court in the Reich , in which case the persons indicted had to be deported straightaway, before judgment.

The first deportations of NN prisoners from to the special camp of Hinzert, near the Cologne court, which could judge the accused persons for which the MBF was competent, took place in May after a second, decisive ordinance for the implementation of the decree was published in mid-April But as attacks against its soldiers and premises were increasing, the MBD launched collective reprisal measures, proceeding to execute hostages and justifying this before the French population. This period was an opportunity for the German authorities to radicalize their repressive policy anew.

But as early as December , as Hitler deemed the number of hostages shot to be insufficient, the MBF also asked Berlin to also authorize massive reprisal deportation operations, considered more dissuasive S. Though the Communists were the first to be put on the hostage list, Jews were soon added to the catalog of potential victims, especially as of autumn This was borne out by the execution of 95 hostages on December 15, This ideological definition of the hostages to be shot broke with the more traditional one which had previously been in force in occupied France, which targeted the notables of French society.

» La presse de la France Libre

From then on, this choice in the designation of the most important enemy was agreed upon by the military, the police and the diplomatic authorities respectively the MBF and the OKW in Berlin, the Sipo-SD, and the German embassy in. Since mid-August of the previous year, the Einsatzgruppen "task forces" or "intervention groups," which were in fact paramilitary groups formed by Heinrich Himmler and operated by the SS had executed over , Jews in the USSR G.

At the end of January , Himmler began a vast deportation program of , Jewish workers. But this instrumentalization or collusion of interests did not prevent these two policies from evolving differently. In December , the MBF had announced reprisal deportations, which were meticulously prepared as of April Dannecker was essentially seeking to complete the program he had announced in March in Berlin. In the case of France, the selection of victims directly upon their arrival in Auschwitz began with convoy number 7 of July 19; the deportees that were not chosen for labor were gassed immediately.

He had summoned his representatives in France, Belgium and Holland again. This meeting was intended to quickly get the extermination of the Jews of Western Europe underway, by planning a quick death for most people thus deported. Still, to begin with, Eichmann opted during the June 11 meeting to draw on the deportation program of , Jewish workers decided by Himmler in January, though he allowed an additional contingent of victims that were unfit for work to be deported along with the workers.

In fact, the hostage issue had affected many different protagonists, since each decision had given rise to many discussions between the various German repressive organizations and with the French authorities, at the highest hierarchical levels. Oberg took up his post at the end of May. However, several executions were carried out at the same time, in order to increase their intimidating impact on French public opinion, and to leave the German and French police forces enough time to locate the culprits.

But these reprisal killings did not put a stop to the attacks against the occupation forces. The population did not approve of them, and furthermore, they were in danger of hindering the requisition of workers planned by the new French law of September 4, ; the Reich needed these workers ever more urgently. Thus, in a few months, from June to September , the Sipo-SD in power in occupied France took over the administration of several pre-existing projects and altered them. This did not lead to any conflict with the Vichy administration: The occupation of the free zone, starting in November , increased the impact of this change still further: The day of the attack on the Soviet Union, preventive measures were taken against Communist activists in the occupied countries.

The second operation of mass arrest of Jews took place between August 20 and It was decided by the German military authorities in retaliation for acts against the occupying power. The ian municipal police was responsible for the implementation of this measure, with the assistance of Feldgendames. The military administration immediately announced that French citizens detained for the Germans would be considered hostages, and therefore liable to be shot D. This law was essentially directed against Communists and was backdated to August 14, so that these special courts would have retroactive jurisdiction.

The November 18, and June 5, laws broadened the range of persons targeted by these Special Sections, notably to perpetrators of acts of resistance A. On September 13, Jean Catelas, the parliamentary representative of the town of Amiens, as well as Adolphe Guyot and Jacques Woog, were condemned to death, and guillotined on September 24 A.

The MBF had 10 hostages executed in retaliation for the September 6, 10 and 12 attacks against Wehrmacht soldiers. Hitler deemed this insufficiently severe, and after a meeting with the main military and police leaders of the Reich in Berlin on August 30, he asked General Field Marshall Wilhelm Keitel for a repressive decree. After an attack four days earlier against a Wehrmacht captain in , the MBF had 12 hostages executed. September 20 — October 20, No hostages were executed. The next day, a military administration adviser, Hans Reimers, was killed in Bordeaux.

November 28 — December 5, While the attacks and acts of sabotage against the occupying power over the previous month had claimed no lives, this time, three German soldiers were killed and five others wounded in the explosion of a ian bar J-M. Two days later, a soldier was shot in the streets of Brest. When military courts could not swiftly hand out death sentences to persons that had committed certain acts, and have them executed promptly, they were to be deported in total secrecy, in order to intimidate the French population further K.

This was the first big convoy of persons under investigation who had not been judged yet, sent to Germany. The third mass round-up of Jews was carried out in the context of collective reprisal measures taken by the MBF on December 5. Klarsfeld, ; in addition, see J. The reprisal deportations planned and announced by the MBF were then postponed.

After further attacks against German soldiers 9 in January, 45 in February the executions continued. In Riom, the trial of the Third Republic, the Popular Front and the June defeat began before the members of the Vichy administration who were promoting it. Hitler himself called for the suspension of the trial; this request was granted on April 11, G. Upon its arrival, 1, deportees were registered. Part of them had been arrested during the August 20, mass round-up in , and others during that of December In both zones, other Jews were isolated from society by French laws and German measures.

In several thousand men were arrested in the occupied zone of France. Several organisations, particularly the OSE, strived to help the children by taking them out of internment camps. These children, who mostly came from foreign families, were gathered in homes that were first created in in the south of France. The educators, who were foreign themselves, were able to understand the cultural and linguistic specificity of these children and teenagers.

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These homes were not safe from roundups and they quickly became a place where children were prepared for clandestine life. Before being left in the care of resistant organizations which would hide them in non-Jewish homes host families or various religious or non-religious institutions or smuggle them into Switzerland, they were given fake identities. Because the children were in mortal danger, the issue was no longer their social integration but their survival. Ils avaient subi des humiliations et des brimades de la part de certains de leurs camarades de classe ou de leurs professeurs.

Nous ne pouvions nous montrer nulle part: La concurrence est directe avec Castelnau. Les Etudes prennent alors. Bulletin de l'Union Catholique d'Etudes Internationales. Archives nationales, AP Voir leur liste dans R. Cholvy, Paris, Le Cerf, , pp. Mayeux, Organisation supranationale de la paix, Paris, Ed. S'engager pour la paix dans la France de l'entre-deux-guerres.