Le Complexe du Chimpanzé - tome 3 - Civilisations (Complexe du Chimpanzé (Le)) (French Edition)

Popularity Popularity Featured Price: Low to High Price: High to Low Avg. Available for download now. Only 2 left in stock more on the way. Only 4 left in stock - order soon. Genetiks Sep 15, Only 1 left in stock - order soon. Genetiks, Tome 3 French Edition. Plus belle la vie, Tome 2: Un jumeau pour la vie Nov 02, Verdicts May 23, Provide feedback about this page. There's a problem loading this menu right now.

Get fast, free shipping with Amazon Prime. Get to Know Us. English Choose a language for shopping. Amazon Music Stream millions of songs. Unfortunately, at present a P. Whether this species in Pan results from a past host switch from humans into chimpanzee, or whether it corresponds to P. It might be that the dynamics of P. The quartan malaria parasites, P. Thus, it was interesting that the mitochondrial genomes of the parasites related to P.

This could indicate that the parasites in bonobos might correspond to P. Confirmation that this might indeed be the case awaits further molecular data from a larger set of P. Three parasite lineages related to P.

One of these lineages clearly corresponds to P. We propose that the other lineages may represent two distinct Plasmodium species. Given the data from the near-complete mitochondrial genome sequences, and the support from dhfr-ts and msp2 sequences, we consider it reasonable to ascribe specific status to the parasites in the two novel lineages observed in chimpanzees.

We propose to name the parasites of one of the novel lineages Plasmodium billcollinsi Krief et al.

Le complexe du chimpanzé - BD, informations, cotes

The type material would be the mitochondrial genome sequences holotype and paratype , with a distribution in Uganda and the DRC in Pan t. While we were finalizing this manuscript for submission, a publication describing a novel lineage related to P. Based on mitochondrial DNA sequences, the authors have also proposed that this lineage be considered a new species, P. When the mitochondrial sequence submitted for P. However, the differences were of sufficient importance e. Nonetheless, this assessment is at present mitigated by the fact that the contiguous mitochondrial sequence provided for the K isolate of P.

Furthermore, if the animal from which the sample was obtained harboured a mixed infection, as did many of the chimpanzees that we sampled, the different fragments used for assembly might have originated from different species or lineages. Consequently, we opted not to consider the P. We are aware that the validity of a species described only by sequences of one or more genes is open to debate, as this does not conform to current acceptable criteria. It would have been desirable to obtain some morphological data to provide a classical description of a novel species.

The description of a new Plasmodium species is classically made after microscopic examination of Giemsa-stained infected erythrocytes, most often showing all asexual and sexual developmental stages.

Associated Data

In the case of Plasmodium parasites that infect highly protected hosts such as chimpanzees, gorillas and orang-utans invasive sampling is highly restricted. On rare occasions it is possible to obtain a blood sample, but experimental infections of such animals are now nearly universally legally proscribed. Thus, the likelihood to obtain the morphological and biological data required to define and name a novel Plasmodium species for such hosts is highly remote. Furthermore, the presence in a single sample of multiple species would make it difficult to derive reliable conclusions from observations of a few blood smears.

This is further exacerbated when parasite levels are low because this restricts microscopic examination to a few forms in thick smears where parasite morphology is poorly preserved. In our case, the six chimpanzees we sampled had low parasite loads, and four of them had mixed species infections. Had we had the opportunity to examine blood smears, a crescent-shaped gametocyte distinctive of P. Therefore, in the case of blood dwelling protozoan parasites of African Apes or other protected species, molecular data become the only accessible and reliable taxonomic features. In our study, we have considered that the phylogenetic analysis and genetic diversity comparisons based on the near-complete mitochondrial genomes, combined and supported with similar data from two nuclear genes, provided sufficient grounds to propose the description of two new species.

The fact that similar sequence analyses correctly predict the specific status of well-established Plasmodium species Fig. We nonetheless consider that it would be worthwhile for the community to agree on standardized parameters derived from defined molecular data that could serve to describe Plasmodium species for which no morphological or biological data are likely to become available.

The findings we present in this manuscript advocate a reappraisal of current views on the evolution and origin of P. When it was thought that P. Grounds for favouring one hypothesis over the other shifted with time, as the weight of evidence that could support one hypothesis over the other was limited, principally by the availability of only a single P.

Recent analyses of data from parasites sampled from eight chimpanzees provided clear support for the host-switch scenario [12]. The data we present further support this finding and provide a more detailed account of the events leading to the origin of P. When the tree topologies derived from the dhfr-ts and mitochondrial sequences Fig.

We proceeded to estimate the divergence time of the most recent common ancestor for the Laverania clade. We agree that the use of molecular clocks is not without pitfalls, even when good time points can be used for calibration [22] , [23]. In the particular case of parasitic organisms, an assumption of some level of host specificity though not necessarily co-speciation is needed in order to use host evolution for estimating the parasite mutation rates.

Therefore, we estimated times of divergence of the mitochondrial sequences using models that allow the use of relaxed molecular clocks [24]. Thus, we estimated the mutation rates under two previously used scenarios: It is worth noting that neither of these two time points requires co-speciation i. Such timeframes can be estimated even in the absence of good phylogenetic trees [26]. It is interesting that our time estimates Table 2 that did not use the Homo - Pan divergence as a calibration point, were not substantially different from those estimated by others [9] , [17] who used the P.

The estimates of the divergence times for the Laverania clade members Table 2 indicated that all the four lineages might have originated between 6. Regardless of the wide confidence interval, this time frame is consistent with the origin of the genus Pan , but it clearly indicated that the Laverania lineages may have started to diverge long before the divergence Pan - Homo [27]. In addition, the phylogeny clearly indicates that the human parasite, P. Given the phylogeny, a Pan host appears as an ancestral characteristic of the lineage.

Therefore, when both phylogenies and estimated times of divergence are considered, a co-evolutionary origin of P. Consequently the hypothesis that P. However, our data indicate more complex scenarios that can only be addressed when data from multiple isolates of the parasite lineages currently present in both the hosts involved are included in the analyses. The mitochondrial haplotype map Fig. The most parsimonious interpretation of this line of evidence is that P. When the human P. While we cannot rule out that the available sample of P.

However, when considered together, the two distinct P. This timeframe coincides with the divergence of bonobo from the common chimpanzee [28] , [29]. Taken together, our analyses indicate that P. The topology of the mitochondrial haplotype network Fig. The parasites we obtained over a short period from a single bonobo community probably constitute a biased sample set.

A reliable estimate of the timing for the host-switch and the number of times this event might have taken place would require the inclusion of sequences from a larger set of P. Assuming that there was no sampling bias with respect to the P. It is also possible that host switching still occurs today in areas where humans and bonobos are in close epidemiological contact. The presence of double or triple mutations associated with resistance to pyrimethamine in the four dhfr sequences obtained for the P.

Finally, it could be speculated that the parasites in bonobos and in humans have recombined sexually. The scenario we propose for the origin of P. These conclusions were based on the analysis of the genetic diversity and tree topologies derived from fragments of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene bp , the apicoplast caseinolytic protease bp , and the nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA gene bp , obtained from eight Plasmodium -infected chimpanzees three from Pan t. One assumption was that these sequences were derived from a single parasite specie, P. This was a fair supposition to make since these short sequences did not provide sufficient resolution to distinguish their lineages from that of the only known P.

However, when these partial cytochrome b sequences are compared to the homologous region in the mitochondrial genomes that we obtained, there are clear indications that some might correspond to P. S1 , which differ to such an extent from P. Indeed this is evident on examination of the topology and branch lengths in the phylogenetic tree presented for the cytochrome b fragment see Fig.

Our data provides evidence of a contrasting and more complex evolutionary scenario where P. The infections of bonobos by P. This is consistent with previous observations, including some made on splenectomised chimpanzees with high parasite levels [13] , [14] , in which chimpanzees experimentally infected with various parasite species including P.

This minor impact on the health of chimpanzees was recently supported by the failure to detect a signature of positive selection in their G6PD genes, despite a long association with Plasmodium parasites [31]. The contrasting parasitological and clinical evolutions of P.

Customers Also Bought Items By

Such knowledge could be exploited to devise novel approaches to reduce the substantial global morbidity and mortality burdens. It is likely that bonobos, in which we have found significant numbers to be naturally infected with P. One can now, therefore, justifiably explore whether bonobos and chimpanzees could act as a reservoir for all Plasmodium species that afflict humans. The potential impact of zoonotic malaria transmission on human health has been recently exemplified by a stable focus of potentially lethal P. Such a possibility has not been considered for sub-Saharan Africa.

A zoonotic reintroduction of malaria into communities that live in hyperendemic areas is likely to be of little consequence. However, this would hinder efforts to eradicate malaria and might possibly lead to epidemic foci in formerly malarious regions whose inhabitants have lost immunity acquired against malaria. Furthermore, humans have been shown to be susceptible to infection by two of the parasite species of African Apes P. Using the sequence data we obtained from chimpanzee parasites, it will now be possible to seek these parasites in groups of humans that are in contact with African Apes.

In conclusion, the data gathered from a limited molecular analysis of a modest number of chimpanzee blood samples have not only significantly added to our knowledge of Plasmodium in our closest relatives, bonobos and chimpanzees, but also provided tantalizing insights into the evolutionary history of the malaria parasites of humans. These studies might provide novel approaches that could help control and eventually eradicate pathogens that have long exacted devastating global health, economic and social burdens. Collections of blood samples from animals in the DRC were made during routine annual medical check-ups.

The few drops of blood from the chimpanzees at the Kibale National Park Uganda were obtained non-invasively: Authorization to use the DNA extracted from the samples for the purposes of genetic analyses of Plasmodium parasites that might be present was granted by the Uganda Wildlife Authority and the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology. The animal work was conducted according to relevant national and international guidelines. In all cases, the animals were not subjected to any experimental procedures, and the blood samples were obtained from aliquots collected independently by veterinarians carrying out routine medical examination.

After consideration of the protocols of the study, the Arizona State University Institutional Review Board considered that the proposed molecular analyses of parasite DNA did not require formal approval. Blood samples were collected on EDTA from three, wild, eastern chimpanzees Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii , members of the Kanyawara community in Kibale National Park in western Uganda.

A team led by S. Krief closely monitors the behaviour and health status of the Kanyawara chimpanzees. The blood samples have been opportunistically collected from one adult female named NL found dead on 20 Jan , and from blood that dripped from wounds of an adolescent female named JK found caught in a snare on the 24 Oct , and from those of another adolescent female named OK found injured on 30 Sep The blood was collected under general anaesthesia during the routine annual health check monitoring.

Eight orphan Pan troglodytes troglodytes from the DRC were sampled immediately after rescue between and Blood samples were collected from 42 bonobos Pan paniscus that were kept at the Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary, on the outskirts of Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The samples were obtained in as part of the routine annual health monitoring of 20 females and 22 males age from 2 to 22 years old. Cough symptoms were noted in 19 individuals. Body temperatures ranged from None of the animals suffered from diarrhoea, nor was blood found in the urine samples collected.

Blood smears were not available for microscopic examination, thus parasite levels were estimated using PCR analysis of a fold serial dilution series of the DNA purified from the positive samples. The nested PCR detection assay used was based on the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene ssrRNA , using oligonucleotide primers that were specific to, and conserved in, all known Plasmodium species [18].

In the case of the mitochondrial genome, we report sequences deposited in GenBank Accession numbers are in parentheses following species name for the Asian macaque parasites P. Other sequences were reported in other studies: Additional information about these species, including their description, basic biology, geographic distribution and host-range can be found elsewhere [13].

Additional sequences of Plasmodium mitochondrial genomes were obtained from the GenBank Accession numbers are in parentheses following species name: The gene encoding dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase dhfr-ts from P. The gene encoding the dhfr-ts from parasites related to P.

The PCR conditions were: Aligning dhfr-ts sequences among distantly related species of Plasmodium was difficult due to several insertions-deletions. We performed two analyses, one including only P. The fragment encoding the block 3 polymorphic domain of merozoite surface protein 2 msp2 from P.

In the majority of cases these sequences were derived from two or more independent amplifications. All the sequences obtained and reported here were submitted to GenBank Accession numbers and the corresponding gene fragments are presented in the Table S1. Mixing of the chains and convergence was properly checked after runs. The recovered ML and Bayesian trees were identical. Although a total of eight distinct near-complete mitochondrial genomes were obtained from the parasites found in the bonobos, we stringently excluded any where the accuracy of the sequence obtained was not optimal, thus only 4 sequences were included in the phylogenetic and other analyses.

However, using such rates will make whatever argument we put forward about the origin of P. Thus, in order to avoid tautological arguments, we estimated mutation rates by considering time of divergence under two scenarios: It is worth noting that these mutation rates were not particularly off other estimates obtained for Plasmodium mitochondrial genomes for e. Previous runs showed that this burn-in was sufficient for the chains to reach stationary distribution. For the relaxed version of the clock we assumed a lognormal distributed clock for the mutation rate, with an average mutation rate according to each scenario mentioned in the previous paragraph, under a Yule prior for the simulation of the lineages during tree reconstruction.

Results of the runs were analyzed with Tracer v1. We checked the adequate mixing of the MCMC chains for each run in and the effective sample size of the estimates, making sure that all of them were above The following sequences were submitted to the GenBank: Phylogenetic tree of Plasmodium based on a cytochrome b fragment. NJ tree on bp of cytochrome b using Tamura 3 parameter model, bootstrap pseudo-replications.

Similar authors to follow

Haplotypes represented in bold are as follows: Plasmodium species that infect humans black , the haplotypes we present in the manuscript blue , the haplotype proposed as P. The species we propose, P. Origin of the blood samples that yielded Plasmodium sequences name in bold and GenBank Accession number in parentheses. We are very grateful to the Uganda Wildlife Authority and the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology for granting us permission to conduct this research. We also extend our gratitude to Makerere University Biological Field Station for logistic support they provided.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Feb Sabrina Krief , 1 Ananias A. Kasenene , 7 Mike Crandfield , 8 Omar E. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer.

Received Sep 4; Accepted Jan Copyright This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Public Domain declaration which stipulates that, once placed in the public domain, this work may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Public Domain declaration, which stipulates that, once placed in the public domain, this work may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract The origin of Plasmodium falciparum , the etiological agent of the most dangerous forms of human malaria, remains controversial. Author Summary Chimpanzees and gorillas are known to have malaria parasites genus Plasmodium similar to those that infect humans.

Introduction Malaria infections have influenced the development of human civilizations, and have shaped the genetic make-up of current human populations. Open in a separate window. Phylogenetic tree of Plasmodium based on mitochondrial genomes. Phylogenetic analyses of the Laverania group based on the dhfr-ts. Alignment of the msp2 block 3 sequences obtained from Pan troglodytes sp. Table 1 Genetic distances between the mitochondrial lineages ca.