Totem et Tabou (Annoté) (French Edition)

A case study from the dry and transitional forests of Andrafiamena, northern Madagascar. Biological Conservation , 1: The role of socio-economic factors in the loss of Malagasy biodiversity. The Natural History of Madagascar. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Survey and management proposals for a tropical deciduous forest reserve at Ankarana in northern Madagascar. Biological Conservation 47, 4: Hunting of protected animals in the Parc National d'Ankarafantsika, north-western Madagascar. Rural bushmeat consumption within multiple-use protected areas: Human Ecology 42, 1: The presence of diurnal lemurs and human-lemur interactions in the buffer zone of the Ankarana National Park.

Bushmeat hunting and use in the Makira Forest, north-eastern Madagascar: Effects of social change on wildlife consumption taboos in northeastern Madagascar. Ecology and Society 20, 2: The human health and conservation relevance of food taboos in northeastern Madagascar. Economic valuation of subsistence harvest of wildlife in Madagascar. Conservation Biology 28, 1: Hunting of wild animals by Sakalava of the Menabe region: Lemurs of Madagascar and the Comoros: Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar.

Environmental Conservation 34, 4: Revue de primatologie En ligne , 3, document 16, mis en ligne le 17 mai Ecological impacts of forest fragmentation on diademed sifakas Propithecus diadema at Tsinjoarivo, Eastern Madagascar: Implications for conservation in fragmented landscapes. Census of three eastern rainforest sites north of Ranomafana National Park: The state of lemur conservation in south-eastern Madagascar: Analysis of patterns of bushmeat consumption reveals extensive exploitation of protected species in eastern Madagascar.

PloS ONE 6, The importance of taboos and social norms to conservation in Madagascar. Conservation Biology 22, 4: New density estimates of a threatened sifaka species Propithecus coquereli in Ankarafantsika National Park. American Journal of Primatology 76, 6: Testing for a historical population bottleneck in wild Verreaux's sifaka Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi using microsatellite data. American Journal of Primatology 70, Lemurs of the Fandriana-Marolambo forest corridor, Madagascar.

National Office of the Environment, Antananarivo. Preliminary study of the conservation status of lemur communities in the Betsakafandrika region of eastern Madagascar. Decline of Propithecus diadema edwardsi and Varecia variegata variegata Primates: Lemuridae in south-east Madagascar. Others find that, for 2 reasons of temperament and personality, they cannot do one or the other. Depending on the length 1 of the speech, this may be done all at one go or in several segments. The 2 consecutive interpreter relies mainly on memory, but good note-taking 3 technique is an essential aid.

Because the simultaneous interpreter cannot fall too far 8 behind, this method requires considerable practice and presence of mind. It is much less time-consuming and enables a multi- 5 lingual conference, with participants speaking a number of languages, to 6 proceed without interruption.

However, consecutive interpretation is still 7 preferred in certain situations, such as one-on-one interviews, confidential 8 hearings, brief public appearances by prominent persons, or some legal 9 proceedings. It has the advantage of not requiring much equipment. In certain situations e. The number of languages spoken at the meeting may also 3 determine the make-up of the team. For certain language combina- 7 tions, relay, or two-step, interpretation is also sometimes used: It is easier to translate or interpret with an understanding of the 4 subject.

Some translators, for example, specialize in medical translation 5 and obtain regular work from pharmaceutical manufacturers. Some trans- 6 lation agencies specialize in technical, business, or legal translation and 7 rely on translators and interpreters with expertise in those areas. Specialist 8 translators can usually command higher fees.

Frequently Asked Questions 5 not possible to be an expert in every field in which there is a demand for 2 translation. Accordingly, translators and interpreters must cultivate the 3 ability quickly to assimilate the basic issues and vocabulary that go with 4 a particular assignment. A translator or interpreter who works regularly 9 for a particular organization or client will soon become familiar with the subject and its jargon. Some court systems in America regularly employ interpreters 8 with a knowledge of certain Asian languages, like Vietnamese, or certain 9 indigenous languages, like Navajo.

Some corporations, like multi-national banks, operate mainly in English but hold their board meetings and 1 publish their annual reports in two or more languages and hire inter- 2 preters and translators for that purpose. Some national governments 3 conduct all of their official business and issue all of their official publica- 4 tions in two or more languages, e. Each employer has different standards and requirements. Court systems will usually administer a formal interpretation 2 exam and certify those who pass. Corporate employers and translation 3 agencies will sometimes administer an entrance test or require a college 4 degree or a certificate from a translation school.

Interpretation Techniques and Exercises | ERNST WENDLAND - www.newyorkethnicfood.com

The European Union administers a 8 competitive general knowledge exam as well as language tests. At the UN, free- 2 lance interpreters must pass a test and staff interpreters are recruited through a formal exam before a panel. Other employers may require applicants 2 to do both simultaneous and consecutive interpretation e.

Few people are truly bilin- 4 gual. Early exposure to two or more languages is helpful because it trains 5 the ear to recognize the sounds of both languages, to grasp difficult 6 accents, and to recognize nuances and idiomatic expressions. But, without 7 additional study and training, it is usually not sufficient to enable a trans- 8 lator or interpreter to use both languages actively at a professional level. The sustained alertness and concentration required to perform this 4 job well have been compared with those required to be an air-traffic 5 controller. At the UN, for example, simul- 9 taneous interpreters are usually required to cover a maximum of seven three-hour meetings per week, except during peak periods.

The average 1 workload at the European Union is somewhat heavier. First, many people studious enough to have acquired 5 a thorough grasp of two or more working languages tend to be of a 6 somewhat shy and retiring disposition and, when faced with an audience, 7 may freeze up and develop mental blocks. Second, interpretation assign- 8 ments — especially the better ones — often require interpreters to perform 9 before large audiences of important people, which can be rather intimi- dating even for those of us who are not especially shy.

But stage fright 1 can be overcome by the same method that student actors use: We use language in our daily lives primarily to com- 7 municate information and express feelings. But the main function of lan- 8 guage as used by public speakers such as diplomats, officials, and corporate 9 executives, who are usually acting as spokesmen for groups, is advo- cacy. An official making a public explanation or 3 apology for an error or embarrassment is trying to persuade the public to 4 forgive and forget.

A diplomat making a lengthy policy statement is try- 5 ing to persuade other diplomats to support her positions by striving to 6 portray her country and its policies in a favorable light. Even a speaker 7 using expository language to relate facts or report information is often 8 doing so in order to support a particular viewpoint, thesis, or proposal.

So, inter- preters should strive to be good public speakers. Enhancing this skill will also help the interpreter 4 to acquire greater confidence and thus overcome stage fright. What arguments would you use? Read the letter aloud as a speech, record it, 1 listen to it at a later time, and consider what you could have said to make 2 it more convincing. Read out the speech into your tape 1 recorder, then listen to it. Could the speech 2 be improved by changing your delivery, intonation, organization, or 3 diction choice of words? If your speech were a broadcast editorial, 4 would listeners pay attention?

Would it be convincing 1 to a listener who did not know that public figure? Choose one of the positions 5 presented and defend that point of view to an imaginary audience of 6 skeptical listeners, first in your mother tongue and then in your other 7 working languages. Then, repeat the exercise, taking the opposite point 8 of view. Son un riesgo para la vida de los pilotos.

UBC Theses and Dissertations

You may use outlines or notes, but your speech should not be written out and read verbatim to the class. Use both 1 logic and emotion to make your points. Maintain eye contact with your 2 audience. After your speech, another student will be called on at random to briefly recapitulate what you have said; another will be called on at 4 random to briefly critique your delivery; then, the rest of the class will be 5 invited to ask you questions about any points in your speech that did not 6 seem clear; finally, anyone in class who wishes to offer a brief rebuttal of 7 your speech will be invited to do so.

So, preserving biolog- 8 ical diversity is more important than promoting industrial progress 9 and creating jobs, and endangered species should be protected by law against the spread of industry and pollution even if jobs are lost in 1 the process. If private insurance coverage 4 does not provide such access, health care should be made a public 5 service funded by public revenues.

Therefore, 9 exerting political pressure on countries by a trade embargo is coun- 40 terproductive. Economic sanctions should be used only to punish serious violations of international law. This proposal 2 unfairly discriminates against the poor. If they do not promptly manufacture the invention and 1 make it available for use by the public, the patent should be revoked 2 and awarded to a different company.

It should be prohibited when housing is in short supply and many are home- 1 less. Landlords who engage in this practice should be fined or 2 required to rent vacant properties at a fair market price. Prepare a brief speech two or three 3 minutes to be given in class, based on one of these two positions. Use 4 any additional arguments or facts you wish. When all class members have 5 spoken, decide by a show of hands which side was more convincingly 6 argued. More is to be gained by leadership, hard-earned prestige, statesmanship and independent judgment than 1 by alliances.

Multilateral diplomacy is a treacherous minefield into 2 which wise leaders should not venture lightly. How does a superpower wield its 3 power in an interdependent world? Democratic power needs legiti- 4 macy. That kind of gunboat diplomacy leads to banana- 8 republic democracy. History teaches that cooperation and integration 9 are more successful in achieving positive results than confrontation 40 and unilateralism.

Postwar Germany chose to become Gulliverized within European networks and structures. Post- 2 Communist Russia renounced the ambition of trying to become a 3 superpower. Instead it has chosen integration and cooperation, even 4 with former archenemies within NATO.

L'âge d'or du totémisme

The United States possesses 5 powers and riches never seen before in the world. But to tackle the 6 global challenges of the 21st century and its new security threats, you 7 need a global strategy and a global network. And only the United 8 Nations can provide the necessary legitimacy and sustainability for 9 worldwide common action. That is not only an outdated model, it is also hopelessly counterproductive.

So the 4 United States should think again and let the International Criminal 5 Court prove its worth. It was designed to constrain, prevent, deter 6 and punish the actions of would-be criminals, not of peacekeepers. Evaluate the strength 2 of the argument in light of the conclusions you have reached on this 3 issue in the previous exercise.

Does the author use any additional or 4 new arguments that you find persuasive? Today, in , 38 years 9 later, Algeria is no longer France. Algeria is not France. Algeria and France are 5 two independent countries, different in their history and culture, 6 two countries which have no common borders and no imperial- 7 istic designs on each other. The words 2 were followed by events, and our relations did become normal, that is to say good when we were in agreement, as when we 4 launched the North—South dialogue together, and bad when we 5 disagreed, as when the problem of the former Spanish Sahara 6 arose.

That group has shown itself incapable of responding to 1 the fundamental needs of Algerians: And yet, Algeria 5 did have assets on which to capitalize: The unanimity across the political spectrum about 2 fighting terrorism requires a political foundation: That is the only way to keep 7 the maelstrom from sweeping up two large communities, one 8 French and one foreign, here in France: Relax 6 and take your time. Think through each sentence before you speak.

Speak clearly 9 and distinctly, but do not use more volume than necessary. Use the voice you use when you are speaking on the telephone and saying 1 something important to the other party. Was the 6 pace of your delivery too fast to be clear, or too slow to be interesting? Compare it with the recording of your reading of the above article.

What does the announcer do with 1 his or her voice that you did not do with yours? Repeat the exercise 2 until you feel the two performances are comparable.

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That temptation must be resisted, for 5 using your natural voice is very important. By reducing strain, it 6 will increase your endurance as an interpreter. It will sound more 7 genuine and persuasive.

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Listen to yourself through one ear as you are 3 interpreting. Also remember that by speaking fairly close to the 4 microphone you can speak much more softly and be heard just as 5 clearly modern microphones are extremely sensitive. Behind the language of peace and friendship there was 4 power and the quivering shadow of action. An interpreter must maintain attention and 5 concentration through many hours of meetings and absorb the contents of 6 lengthy discussions on many subjects.

This means keeping fit, notably by 7 getting enough sleep and following good habits of nutrition and exercise. Interpreters must be able to 1 understand and clearly state a wide range of possible ideas and arguments 2 representing different sides of any issue, even arguments which may 3 seem implausible, or with which they may strongly disagree. Gaining 4 familiarity with the subject matter to be discussed at an upcoming assign- 5 ment is important, and attending a meeting in advance will be especially 6 helpful to get a grasp of procedural rules and terms. Knowing the 9 specific themes of a conference in advance and obtaining a copy of the agenda, background documents, list of speakers, and any prepared 1 speeches available can also be very helpful.

Many speakers prepare their 2 speeches well in advance of delivery and will gladly give or send a copy 3 to an interpreter who takes the trouble to ask for it. Copies of formal 4 speeches and policy statements by public officials can often be readily 5 obtained from their offices or looked up on their Internet web sites. And even an experienced interpreter can be caught 4 off guard by a novel idea, an unusual turn of phrase, a breakthrough in 5 the debate, an eccentric speaker, a spur-of-the-moment argument, an 6 impenetrable accent, a mispronounced key word, a halting delivery, poor 7 sound quality, an obscure reference or acronym, or a deliberately ornate 8 way of saying a perfectly simple thing.

It can be helpful if one tries, by an effort of imagination, to anticipate what the speaker is likely 4 to say, how he or she is likely to say it, and how it can be made compre- 5 hensible to the audience for which one is interpreting. Then listen to the actual speech and compare it with your notes 4 to see how close your guesses were. Then 7 deliver it aloud, to a listener, or to a mirror. If you have trouble, try writing 8 out your speech, or speaking from notes.

Finally, record 9 your speech, listen to it, and consider possible improvements in your arguments, diction, and speed and rhythm of delivery. You have 2 been allowed to address a legislative panel considering a law to ban 3 all plastic beverage containers. You have ten minutes. In as few words 9 as possible, convince the Air Travel Committee which is made up 40 mostly of West Indian delegates that the whole Caribbean region should take a common stand against rising air fares.

If you do not convince the Assembly to lift economic sanc- 1 tions against Catatonia this year, General Crunch will be disappointed 2 with you. Persons with whom General Crunch is disappointed have been known to vanish without a trace. Your voice should not betray nervousness. Moreover, you have solid scientific 4 evidence that dolphins have an IQ comparable to that of humans.

The 9 chairman of the Commission is Ambassador Hook from Catatonia, whose navy is using dolphins experimentally to develop new sonar 1 for its nuclear submarine fleet. You have five minutes. You, Ambassador 8 Hook, have been asked by General Crunch to convince the Global 9 Bank Committee on Resource Development Credits that the situa- 40 tion will soon return to normal and that any suspension of credits to Catatonia would only make things worse.

Failure is no excuse! To reach florists 7 while still fresh, flowers must be shipped by air. The international 8 air-freight cartel is about to adopt a decision doubling air-freight 9 rates. This will bankrupt your country. The only way to prevent it is 1 to convince the assembly of the Global Air Transport Organization 2 that air-freight rates affecting mono-crop-developing island states must be subject to international regulation. But the cartel argues that 4 only deregulation of air-freight rates can save beleaguered airlines 5 from bankruptcy.

The Global Standardization Organization has 8 finally decided to promulgate a worldwide standard for electric 9 plugs. If the worldwide standard specifies American-type flat prongs, all of the European manufacturers will have to re-tool. If the world- 1 wide standard specifies European-type round prongs, all of the 2 American manufacturers will have to re-tool.

In either case, all manu- 3 facturers of electric plug adapters will go out of business. In 5 five minutes, convince the GSO assembly that flat prongs are 6 best. In 9 five minutes, convince the GSO assembly that round prongs are best. In five 2 minutes, convince the GSO assembly that there is no need to 3 standardize electric plugs.

But an interpreter does not have 6 the luxury to pause, catch her breath, and grope for another word. At 7 such times, one way out is to convey the main thrust of the intended 8 message not through words but through intonation. Keep repeating the exercise until the feeling comes across 3 convincingly. Read out the speech into your tape recorder and, relying on the context, fill in the gaps in a way 1 that does not distort the meaning of the sentence as a whole. Try your best 2 to complete every sentence.

When you have finished your recording, 3 check your performance against the full text of the speech, given in 4 Chapter 11 pp. Were your guesses close enough to the original? In addition, Lester B. Make a photocopy of the speech. Lay the speech aside overnight. Check yourself against the original.

This time, blot out the final words of key sentences in each paragraph. When you do the 1 sight-translation, try to finish the sentences in a way that makes sense 2 without altering the main thrust of the sentence.

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Check yourself against 3 the original. In those cases where you were not able to reconstruct the 4 original meaning intended, consider whether it would have been better 5 to take an educated guess or to drop the entire sentence rather than risk 6 getting it wrong. This depends on your judgment and on the context in 7 which the sentence appears. More complex sentences can 5 also be interpreted without too much difficulty if spoken at moderate 6 speed.

A lag of 8 a single sentence or phrase can lead to an omission and inability to catch 9 up. This chapter presents several strategies interpreters use to help cope with the combined difficulty of complexity and speed. This is particularly true when 1 interpreting into English, because clarity, concision, and parallelism are 2 positive stylistic values in English. The answer is not clear even when one reads the passage at 5 leisure, much less when one hears it at high speed.

Consequently, if we 6 try to interpret this into English as a single sentence, tracking the struc- 7 ture of the original, we are liable to get lost halfway through the sentence 8 and become tongue-tied, end up with a hopelessly confused run-on 9 sentence, or miss whatever comes next while we are struggling to sort out this sentence. Notice that, although the sentence as a whole 4 is very complex, each of the different ideas it contains is fairly simple and 5 the connections are fairly obvious.

In other words, those troublesome 6 ambiguous links are not essential and need not necessarily be translated. It may also be clear to listeners familiar with 9 the subject even if it is unclear to the interpreter. Moreover, once you 40 have gotten one idea out of the way, your mind is then free to focus the next idea. On the other hand, if the entire sentence and all of the ideas got lost or garbled because you were struggling to 1 make sense of the ambiguous syntactic links, that would be a more serious 2 error. Then, compare the two transla- 5 tions and ask yourself: When the logical links between 5 the parts of a complex structure are self-evident from the meaning of the 6 parts, you are only slowing yourself down and running the risk of 7 muddling the message if you try to translate all of them.

On the other hand, I might want to spell it out if the 5 audience consisted of schoolchildren. Identify the main idea and the secondary or qualifying ideas 4 in each sentence; then, try to translate them by forming one sentence 5 containing the main idea and separate, short sentences containing the 6 secondary, supporting, or qualifying ideas: Which version is clearer? The situation in 7 Liberia has really changed for the better. Are the two translations the same in meaning? Which is 9 clearer? We reiterate the need to establish alternative 5 development as a priority component of any approach.

That strategy, 6 geared to preventing and solving the problems created by illicit crops, 7 comprises not only crop substitution but, essentially, pursues the full 8 involvement of the social groups devoted to that activity into a legal 9 economy, through plans and programs that set in motion a system of socio-economic development that is comprehensive in character, 1 which especially takes into account the central actors in the problem, 2 in an environmentally sustainable framework and with the support of transparent and less restrictive world markets.

There has been a substantive change in the nature 8 of the conditions that determine the complex fabric of international 9 security. Also aware of the need for our governments as 5 well as public opinion in our countries to have the necessary infor- 6 mation about the work of the United Nations, my delegation believes 7 that archive and library services as well as data banks in our 8 Organization should be available for use in all official languages.

I respectfully request distinguished delegations 2 to consider this initiative that several member states share and 3 transmit to their capitals this wish to make a banner year in the 4 fight against extreme poverty, taking a step forward in the fulfillment 5 of this first Commitment of the Social Summit and, at the same time, 6 in keeping with internal decision-making mechanisms, establishing 7 the operational foundations needed to move ahead, in an integrated 8 fashion and through the joint efforts of all forces and sectors making 9 up the reality of our respective nations, toward the effective fulfill- 40 ment of the 10 Commitments of the Social Summit.

If the inter- 3 preter ascribes the wrong meaning to the conjunction, the interpretation 4 of the rest of the sentence will turn out wrong, and there will usually be 5 no way to correct it because there will not be time. We will not stop supporting it now. It has scored many successes. The problem arises because the 2 speaker may or may not use parallel construction in rattling off a long list 3 of items, or because not all of the items may be translatable in the same 4 parallel grammatical form, e. The interpreter struggling to maintain the grammatical paral- 6 lelism of an enumeration delivered at high speed can easily be thrown off.

But the fact remains that, at least 9 in English, failure to observe parallelism produces a very awkward- sounding result. This can often be done, 3 especially when the speaker announces in advance that he is about to give 4 a list of items, e. Then, the interpreter will have some 9 freedom to maneuver, and can, if possible, maintain parallelism, or, if it is not possible, rephrase the list as necessary.

If the parallelism breaks 1 down half-way through the list, the interpreter can if time permits repeat 2 the introductory construction or resort to using a new sentence or phrase for each item. Choose the one which is clearest. Choose the one which is shortest. Which one would you use if his delivery was 2 extremely fast? Statement by representative of Bolivia 5 6 The English interpreter, who was asked to translate this speech in 7 advance, rendered the shopping list as follows: The main danger from the weakening of this 7 shield is that it could lead to a rising intensity of the ground level 8 UV-B radiation.

This in turn could lead to increased rates of skin 9 cancer and eye cataracts, to stunted agricultural production, and to the possible disappearance of phytoplankton — organisms 1 which form the base of the marine food chain. The main chemi- 2 cals involved are CFCs used in refrigeration, aerosols and as cleaners in many industries , halons used in fire extinguishers , 4 methyl bromide used mainly for soil fumigation in agriculture 5 and some industrial solvents.

Because CFCs and other chemicals 6 remain in the atmosphere for decades, the ozone layer will be 7 at its most vulnerable over the next decade. The most important 8 and effective measure included in the Montreal Protocol is the 9 commitment to limit the use of, and to gradually phase out, all of these man-made chemicals known as ozone depleting 1 substances, or ODSs. Activities expected to take place in coun- 2 tries all over the world as part of the celebration of the second 3 International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer 4 include: The words are nothing more than a container for the ideas.

So, the accuracy of the translation 1 depends on how accurate a mental image one can form from the original 2 meaning. Write out a few brief sentences describing what you did. Then, translate each picture back into the sentence that 3 inspired it, but in a different language. Try to remember what the people actually did 7 and said to each other on that occasion. Write out a brief narrative, 8 with dialogue, for each photo, on a separate sheet of paper.

Then, 9 repeat the exercise, but in a different language. Finish the 3 dialogue in your mind as you think the characters would have 4 finished it. Later 7 on, write out a narrative of the scene and the dialogue in a different 8 language. Read it carefully and form a mental picture of the people and events reported. At these inordinate speeds, it is important 2 for an interpreter to do everything possible to reduce the number of words and syllables the vocal apparatus must produce.

Otherwise, one will fall 4 prey not only to errors of language and meaning but also to errors of 5 articulation or enunciation e. If a speaker repeats the same point several times 3 in the same passage of his speech, the redundant repetitions can be 4 deleted or abridged once the point has been made clear. Redundant adjectives 7 can also sometimes be compressed with no loss of meaning, e. One should make an effort to be familiar with 3 common abbreviations that are widely recognized and save syllables, 4 e.

When an idea has once been made 2 clear, subsequent and often wordier renamings of that idea that are done purely for the sake of variety need not be translated literally, as the 4 style may be sacrificed for the meaning if one or the other must go. Similarly, when a speaker, out of mere 9 wordiness, gives a lengthy list of items that are purely illustrative of his main point, some of those items can be safely deleted without distorting 1 his meaning.

That is why small-island states are calling this conference. That is why urgent 1 measures are needed. That is what I would like to talk about today. But that alternative strategy could, over the longer term, 7 lead to a problematic loss of control over national resources. The fore- 8 going is at the core of the current debate in Mexico. The foregoing is also 9 our main concern at this conference. These and others are often translatable into 6 English by the word Accordingly,.

How many others can you think 7 of, in each of your working languages? Personification can also be used with inan- imate objects and with meetings or organizations, e. Without changing the 7 meaning of the sentences, translate them into English by eliminating 8 one of those two words. Where a docu- 7 ment is mentioned, attribute the statement to the document itself, 8 e. It is therefore 4 important for an interpreter to be alert to them, since the ability to move 5 part of a sentence to a later position in the sentence helps the interpreter 6 to cope with complexity and speed.

Bibliographie

In the following example, notice that 7 there are two ways to simplify the syntax of the sentence: We welcome this conference, which has long 4 been called for by developing countries, as a sign of hope for the 5 future. We welcome this conference the 7 developing countries have long called for it as a sign of hope for 8 the future. The developing countries have long called for it. The words 5 of the source language must be recognized, and the sentences must be 6 understood.

But the words are only the trees, and it is more important 7 to see the forest. They are units of 9 meaning, which may comprise a number of words, or part of a sentence, or more than one sentence at a time. But the meaning will correspond. Phrases containing several adjectives 5 will become unmanageable for a simultaneous interpreter unless they are 6 mentally processed as a unit. To develop this skill, it is helpful to browse dictionaries and 6 do crossword puzzles.

And, 3 if you can think of the right word for the object, it will remind you of the 4 word you need to translate the verb. Similarly, calling the right adjective 5 to mind will often remind you of the noun you need, and vice versa. Repeat this 5 exercise in each of your languages. Then, translate the sentences in the same manner. Ghana has shown the will and readiness to come to the 5 help of nations in distress. The troops advanced at breakneck speed.

It 4 is often used to set the scene for the rest of the sentence. The following 5 two examples are taken from a speech made by the representative of 6 Belarus at the 48th session of the UN General Assembly. First is a trans- 7 lation following the original phrasing or structure, then the official 8 English translation as it appeared in the UN Official Records after being 9 interpreted and edited.

Let us take a look at this experience and potential 2 in those areas which, as is widely recognized and attested to even 3 by this current debate, have become very important for preserving 4 world peace and security. Let us take a look at this experience and 6 potential in those areas which have become very important for 7 preserving global peace and security, as is widely recognized and 8 attested to even by this current debate.

Taking an authoritative position on these issues, 2 Belarus intends to present during this session of the General 3 Assembly, on behalf of and on the instructions of the states of 4 Commonwealth of Independent States, a joint declaration of the CIS 5 on issues of the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and 6 their delivery systems.

La dimension politique de «Totem et Tabou» de Freud

Taking an authoritative position on these 8 issues, Belarus, on behalf of and on the instructions of the states of the 9 Commonwealth of Independent States, intends during this session to 40 present a joint declaration by the CIS on issues of the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their delivery systems. If it is long enough that leaving it in the middle tends to 7 disrupt the sentence as in Example 1 above , one can save it for the end 8 of the sentence. Then, translate each passage in as many different 6 ways as you can, making separate sentences out of the independent 7 clauses or placing them in different positions in the sentence.

Statement by representative of Uruguay 6 7 Since it will to some extent involve a renunciation of sovereign rights, 8 every state must of necessity proceed with caution and circumspec- 9 tion, subjecting its far-reaching provisions to an exacting scrutiny before jettisoning to some extent existing arrangements and proce- 1 dures as to interstate co-operation and mutual assistance in this field 2 and venturing on uncharted seas.

No matter 4 how good the translation, something always seems to be lost.

Rather, 9 the interpreter should try to devise some way of getting the idea across. It involves asking questions like the following: What am I translating? The name of a 4 concrete object or of an abstraction? The title of a person? The name of 5 a cultural institution or artifact? A specialized use 6 of an ordinary word? The 7 expression of an emotion? A figure of speech? A newly-coined 8 term? Should I look for a different part of speech e.

Is there anything in my culture which occupies roughly the same place or which plays roughly the same role? Is there anything in 1 my culture that is thought of or talked about in a comparable way? Is the 2 target audience expecting a complete translation? Does the context or 3 the sub-text make clear the untranslatable implications? True, the word itself is not easily translatable by any single 6 English word. Its meaning is so specific that even English-speaking econ- 7 omists make no attempt to translate it and have in fact adopted it as if it 8 were an English word.

Thus, a recent World Bank study on Latin America 9 by an American economist includes the following sentence: But a translation or interpretation does not 7 have to use the same parts of speech as the original. If we ask ourselves 8 what English words are usually used in the context of discussions 9 about government regulation of business, we find at least one possible 40 equivalent noun phrase: An interpreter should try always to have more 1 than one way to express any given idea.

Bring copies of the list to class with you for discussion. Try asking a native speaker of 7 the language, or a specialist in the field to which the word pertains. Could you find equivalents for some 1 of these words by talking to skiers or meteorologists who are 2 accustomed to describing snow conditions? Could they be translated by analogy? Notice also 4 that some Spanish bullfighting terms torero, matador , precisely because 5 they are too culture-specific to be translatable, have become acceptable 6 English words that need no longer be translated or explained.

Do you agree? What does each word refer to? El dilema se presenta para 6 los liberales mexicanos precisamente porque esa identidad no 7 existe. That being the case, the interpreter should 7 choose the alternative which conveys the same value judgment 8 intended by the speaker. Which would you choose in the above case? Is the 9 problem due to the fact that the concept itself is somewhat unfamiliar to the French or Spanish languages? But, sometimes, 7 even the fullest sympathy with the speaker does not seem to help and the 8 target language seems inadequate to the task.

This feature emerges most 9 clearly in the context of opera, and it is of interest to interpreters to consider why this is so. It is thought by many people well versed in 1 music that certain languages, such as Italian, have unique lyrical quali- 2 ties which cannot be fully translated. Thus, Italian opera is rarely 3 translated, and the burden falls to the non-Italian-speaking audience to 4 make sense of the action by reading the libretto. Primitive Mentality, in Garnered Sheaves. Freud Sigmund, , Totem et Tabou. Exogamy, Current Anthropological Literature , Lancaster, vol.

An introduction to anthropology , London, George G. An introduction to primitive culture , New York, F. Internationale Zeitschrift for Volker-und Sprachenkunde , Wien, vol. Illustrierte Zeitschrift for Lander-und Volkerkunde , Braunschweig, vol. Hubert Henri, , Compte rendu de Reinach: The Golden Bough, Folklore. The Secret of the Totem, Folklore. Kohler Joseph, , On the Prehistory of Marriage. A Quarterly Review of. Myth, Tradition, Institution and Custom , London, vol. A Reply to Mr. The Group Mind, Man.