Estonia: Picture Book (Educational Childrens Books Collection) - Level 2 (Planet Collection 237)

The Estonian Academy of Sciences is the national academy of science. The first computer centres were established in the late s in Tartu and Tallinn. Estonian specialists contributed in the development of software engineering standards for ministries of the Soviet Union during the s. According to New Scientist , Estonia will be the first nation to provide personal genetic information service sponsored by the state.

They aim to minimize and prevent future ailments for those whose genes make them extra prone to conditions like adult-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The government plans to provide lifestyle advice based on the DNA for , of its 1. The culture of Estonia incorporates indigenous heritage, as represented by the Estonian language and the sauna , with mainstream Nordic and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of the adjacent area's various Finnic, Baltic, Slavic and Germanic peoples as well as the cultural developments in the former dominant powers Sweden and Russia.

Today, Estonian society encourages liberty and liberalism, with popular commitment to the ideals of the limited government, discouraging centralised power and corruption. The Protestant work ethic remains a significant cultural staple, and free education is a highly prized institution. Like the mainstream culture in the other Nordic countries, Estonian culture can be seen to build upon the ascetic environmental realities and traditional livelihoods, a heritage of comparatively widespread egalitarianism out of practical reasons see: Everyman's right and universal suffrage , and the ideals of closeness to nature and self-sufficiency see: The Estonian Academy of Arts Estonian: Eesti Kunstiakadeemia , EKA is providing higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation while Viljandi Culture Academy of University of Tartu has an approach to popularise native culture through such curricula as native construction, native blacksmithing, native textile design, traditional handicraft and traditional music, but also jazz and church music.

Runic singing was widespread among Estonians until the 18th century, when rhythmic folk songs began to replace them. Traditional wind instruments derived from those used by shepherds were once widespread, but are now becoming again more commonly played. Other instruments, including the fiddle , zither , concertina , and accordion are used to play polka or other dance music.

The kannel is a native instrument that is now again becoming more popular in Estonia. The tradition of Estonian Song Festivals Laulupidu started at the height of the Estonian national awakening in Today, it is one of the largest amateur choral events in the world. In , about , people participated in the Song Festival. The last festival took place in July In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held every four or five years, the last of them in In the s, Estonian baritone Georg Ots rose to worldwide prominence as an opera singer.

She has provided music for the Disney film Alice in Wonderland and the television series Smallville in the United States of America. In , Estonia hosted the event. Lenna Kuurmaa is a very popular singer in Europe [ citation needed ] , with her band Vanilla Ninja. The Estonian literature refers to literature written in the Estonian language ca. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences. The Liber Census Daniae contains Estonian place and family names.

The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few albeit remarkable exceptions, this archaic form has not been much employed in later times. One of the most outstanding achievements in this field is the national epic Kalevipoeg.

At a professional level, traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer Veljo Tormis. Oskar Luts was the most prominent prose writer of the early Estonian literature, who is still widely read today, especially his lyrical school novel Kevade Spring. The cinema of Estonia started in with the production of a newsreel about Swedish King Gustav V 's visit to Tallinn.

Regular, live radio broadcasts began in December Deregulation in the field of electronic media has brought radical changes compared to the beginning of the s. The first licenses for private TV broadcasters were issued in The first private radio station went on the air in Today the media is a vibrant and competitive sector. There is a plethora of weekly newspapers and magazines, and Estonians have a choice of 9 domestic TV channels and a host of radio stations.

The Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, and Estonia has been internationally recognised for its high rate of press freedom, having been ranked 3rd in the Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders. Estonia has two news agencies. The architectural history of Estonia mainly reflects its contemporary development in northern Europe.

In addition, the country has several unique, more or less preserved hill forts dating from pre-Christian times, a large number of still intact medieval castles and churches, while the countryside is still shaped by the presence of a vast number of manor houses from earlier centuries. As of [update] , there are 12 public holidays which come with a day off and 12 national holidays celebrated annually. Historically, the cuisine of Estonia has been heavily dependent on seasons and simple peasant food.

Today, it includes many typical international foods. The most typical foods in Estonia are black bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies. Today, it is also very popular to grill outside in summer. Traditionally in winter, jams, preserves, and pickles are brought to the table. Gathering and conserving fruits, mushrooms, and vegetables for winter has always been popular, but today gathering and conserving is becoming less common because everything can be bought from stores.

However, preparing food for winter is still very popular in the countryside. Sport plays an important role in Estonian culture. After declaring independence from Russia in , Estonia first competed as a nation at the Summer Olympics , although the National Olympic Committee was established in Estonian athletes took part of the Olympic Games until the country was annexed by the Soviet Union in The Summer Olympics Sailing regatta was held in the capital city Tallinn. After regaining independence in , Estonia has participated in all Olympics.

Estonia has won most of its medals in athletics , weightlifting , wrestling and cross-country skiing. Estonia has had very good success at the Olympic games given the country's small population. Estonia's best results were being ranked 13th in the medal table at the Summer Olympics , and 12th at the Winter Olympics. Kiiking , a relatively new sport, was invented in by Ado Kosk in Estonia. Paul Keres , Estonian and Soviet chess grandmaster, was among the world's top players from the mids to the mids. He narrowly missed a chance at a World Chess Championship match on five occasions.

Basketball is also a notable sport in Estonia. The domestic top-tier basketball championship is called the Korvpalli Meistriliiga. University of Tartu team has won the league a record 26 times. Estonian clubs also participate in European and regional competitions. Estonia national basketball team previously participated in Summer Olympics , appeared in EuroBasket four times.

Estonian national team also competed at the EuroBasket Kelly Sildaru , an Estonian freestyle skier, won the gold medal in the slopestyle event in the Winter X Games. At age 13, she became the youngest gold medalist to date at a Winter X Games event, and the first person to win a Winter X Games medal for Estonia. She has also won the women's slopestyle at and Winter Dew Tour. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the European country, Estonia.

For other uses, see Estonia disambiguation. For the language, see Estonian language. According to the Constitution of Estonia , Estonian is the sole official language. Russian is spoken in parts of Ida-Virumaa and Tallinn. The ceded areas include most of the former Petseri County and areas behind the Narva river including Ivangorod Jaanilinn. Ancient Estonia and Viking Age in Estonia. Governorate of Estonia , Governorate of Livonia , and Estonian national awakening. Geography of Estonia and Climate of Estonia. Fauna of Estonia and Protected areas of Estonia.

Police and Border Guard Board. Foreign relations of Estonia and Diplomatic missions of Estonia. Residents of Estonia by ethnicity [] Estonians. Human rights in Estonia , Nordic identity in Estonia , and Estonian alien's passport. List of cities and towns in Estonia. Largest cities or towns in Estonia []. Culture of Estonia and List of Estonians.

List of Estonian films and List of Estonian war films. Public holidays in Estonia. Kama food , Kalev confectioner , Kohuke , and Verivorst. Retrieved 19 July Retrieved 26 January Retrieved 5 January United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 14 December Archived from the original on 21 July Retrieved 21 July A Model For Developing Countries".

Archived from the original on 28 June Retrieved 5 June Retrieved 29 May Retrieved 28 October Retrieved 20 October Maakeel ja eesti keel. Eine Studie zur Begriffsgeschichte des Ostseeraums. Ethnic Groups of Europe: The New York Times. Retrieved 6 November Baltic yearbook of international law.

League of Nations publications. Retrieved 1 November A History of the Baltic States. An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. The Estonians; The long road to independence. Retrieved 27 December Estonian Journal of Archaeology. Estonia and the Estonians: Sigtuna hukkumine Haridus, 7—8 , pp. Retrieved 4 November A New History of the Crusades. A Concise History of the Baltic States.

Culture and Customs of the Baltic States. Estland genom tiderna in Swedish. Baltisk kultur och historia in Swedish. Historical Dictionary of Estonia. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, — The Military Orders and the Reformation: Choices, State Building, and the Weight of Tradition. The History of the Baltic States. A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya. Independence and European Integration.

The Process of Political Succession. The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia. Secret Soldiers of the Revolution: Soviet Military Intelligence, — Central and South-Eastern Europe The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, — University of California Press. Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations.

Die Geschichte der baltischen Staaten. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. An Evolved Approach to the Cold War. The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century. American Foreign Service Association. Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: Archived from the original on 29 June Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since Environmental Security and Public Safety: Bridging the Baltic Sea: Encyclopedia of Soviet Law.

Legal Reform in Post-Communist Europe: The View from Within. Communist and Post-Communist Parties in Europe: Between Utopia and Disillusionment: Sovereignty and the Breakup of the Soviet Union. Political Change in the Post-Communist World. Retrieved 18 August Transitions and Growth in Post-Soviet Europe. The Baltic States After Independence. Retrieved 2 June Retrieved 20 February Retrieved 27 March Retrieved 23 February Archived from the original on 13 July Worldwide press freedom index Archived 28 January at the Wayback Machine.

Archived from the original on 22 July Retrieved 8 October Retrieved 16 March The law of nations: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Australia. Retrieved 22 February Archived from the original on 10 September Retrieved 11 August Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 November Archived from the original on 11 May Nordic Council of Ministers.

Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Latvia. Archived from the original on 18 November Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia. German paper outlines vision for EU defence union". Northern Security and Global Politics: Nordic-Baltic strategic influence in a post-unipolar world. Retrieved 24 December Retrieved 23 July Retrieved 19 September The Geopolitics of Euro-Atlantic Integration 1 ed. Successes tend to get ignored in Estonian-Russian relations".

Archived from the original on 28 May Archived from the original on 4 January Archived from the original on 5 August Ministry of National Defence Republic of Lithuania. Archived from the original on 8 June Archived from the original on 4 May Archived from the original on 20 July Archived from the original on 24 June Retrieved 29 June Archived from the original on 10 March Archived from the original on 27 September Retrieved 24 February Office of the President of Estonia.

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Retrieved 22 July Does the state guarantee that oil shale reserves are used sustainably? National Audit Office of Estonia. Archived from the original on 7 January Retrieved 7 January Turning a Problem into a Resource: Volume 28 of NATO science series: Retrieved 1 December Finnish and Estonian joint nuclear power station could be located in Estonia , Postimees. Retrieved 23 June Overview of the Construction industry in Estonia".

Archived from the original on 21 October A Small Nation's Outsized Accomplishments. Archived from the original PDF on 3 August Retrieved 31 July Retrieved 13 July Eesti Energia ditched nuclear plant plans for shale oil". Archived from the original on 7 February Retrieved 27 February Retrieved 8 August Archived from the original on 7 April Retrieved 6 June Archived from the original on 7 August The Baltic States and Their Region: New Europe Or Old?

Statistics Estonia government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance. Retrieved 19 June Archived from the original on 27 August The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 4 January Retrieved 9 January Measuring Police Integrity Across the World: Studies from Established Democracies and Countries in Transition.

Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion Norris and Inglehart and thus some authors e. For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families.

In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church [ World and Its Peoples: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. It is usually said that Estonia is a Protestant country; however, the overwhelming majority of Estonians, some 72 percent, are nonreligious.

Estonia is the European Union EU country with the greatest percentage of people with no religious belief. This is in part, the result of Soviet actions and repression of religion. When the Soviet Union annexed Estonia in , church property was confiscated, many theologians were deported to Siberia, most of the leadership of Evangelical Lutheran Church went into exile, and religious instruction was banned.

Many churches were destroyed in the German occupation of Estonia, from through , and in World War II — , and religion was actively persecuted in Estonia under Soviet rule until , when some measure of tolerance was introduced. Fundamental Rights, Liberties, and Duties Article Archived from the original PDF on 24 May Archived from the original on 5 March Retrieved 16 February European Commission , p. Archived from the original PDF on 13 May Retrieved 12 May Retrieved 22 September Archived from the original on 11 August Retrieved 2 May Population Census — Religious affiliation".

Towards Openly Multilingual Policies and Practices: Institute of the Estonian Language. Retrieved 12 August Archived from the original on 4 September Ministry of Education and Research. Archived from the original on 3 March Retrieved 22 August Koolihariduse algusest" in Estonian. Retrieved 14 October Archived from the original on 17 June Retrieved 17 September Archived from the original on 21 June Archived from the original on 9 July Retrieved 3 April Postimees , 30 October The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians.

Lis z tmania by Bachtrack for classical music, opera, ballet and dance event reviews". The development of written Estonian. Books and Writers kirjasto. Archived from the original on 5 October Europe on a Shoestring. Retrieved 19 December Archived from the original on 6 January Archived from the original on 17 December Retrieved 24 September Climate Change Performance Index. Jaak Kangilaski et al. The European Union and its enlargement to the East. L'Unione europea e l'allargamento ad Est. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century.

War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, — Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence. This, combined with the fact that there are still many older Soviet cars on the road, has meant a substantial increase in traffic similar now to a major U. Aggressive driving is the norm. Car headlights must be on at all times, year round.

The driver and front seat passenger must wear seat belts. Police enforce and most drivers take driving-under-the-influence-of-alcohol laws seriously. Car seats for babies and small children are mandatory and available locally. A first-aid kit, fire extinguisher, and safety reflectors in case of breakdown are mandatory. Winter tires, available locally at prices similar to or slightly lower than in the U. Studded snow tires are allowable and recommended.

Estonia is a left-hand-drive country. The Estonian Government requires that all drivers carry third-party-liability car insurance. Stiff fines are imposed on those who do not comply with this law. Third-party-liability insurance that is considered valid under Estonian law may be purchased in Estonia. However, drivers should note that valid third-party-liability coverage in Estonia may not be valid in neighboring countries, and therefore supplemental insurance must be purchased for travel to the neighboring countries. Some American insurers, such as Clements, will provide coverage that satisfies local requirements.

Drivers intending car travel via ferry to Sweden or Finland should ensure that their liability insurance provides them with a green international insurance card. State and private car insurance policies in Estonia offer minimal coverage compared to that in the U. They generally cover only damage to the driver's car and nominal personal injury coverage. The local prevailing practice is that damages to another driver's car are covered out-of-pocket, but it can be difficult to get any settlement from a delinquent driver.

Estonia's main roads are adequate for daytime, fair-weather driving, but night driving and winter driving can be difficult. Roads outside Tallinn are not lighted and often poorly marked. Road construction is not well marked. During winter months, when roads are sanded and plowed sporadically or, more often, not at all. On the other hand, summer driving in Estonia, and throughout the Baltic States, can be pleasant. The almost endless daylight, the reasonable quality of most roads when not wet, dark, or icy , the relatively light traffic outside the cities, and the increasing availability of tourist and roadside services will do much to counter the cabin fever that results from the lack of winter mobility.

Excellent road maps are readily available in Tallinn for all of Estonia and the other Baltic countries. Public transportation in the Tallinn area is generally convenient and reliable. All forms of public transportation are more crowded than in the U. One can travel easily, if not always comfortably, around the city and to the outskirts of Tallinn using the extensive public transportation system. Tallinn has many taxis, all of which must use a meter. Taxis generally fall into two categories: You can either get a taxi at a taxi stand or request one by phone, for an extra fee.

If they do not do so immediately, remind drivers to turn on their meters. Taxi rates are generally cheaper than in Washington, D. Some modern taxi companies take credit cards. Overall, using taxis in Tallinn is easier and more pleasant than in most U. There is regular intercity travel from Tallinn to other points in Estonia, the other two Baltic capitals, points in Russia and other republics of the former Soviet Union, and major Western European cities.

Bus travel within and beyond Estonia is extensive. You can take a bus to all of Estonia's major cities and towns from Tallinn and can at least make a connection to many smaller towns not directly serviced by buses from Tallinn. You can also travel by bus and ferry to Estonia's larger islands.

Buses travel regularly to Riga and Vilnius, as well as Klaipeda, St. Petersburg , Kaliningrad, and cities in Germany. Bus service is faster and usually more convenient than train travel. Many buses on the longer routes meet Western standards i. Bus travel is cheap, compared with that in the U. Trains from Tallinn service all major regional cities, including Narva and Tartu in Estonia and the following cities in other countries: For longer trips, an overnight sleeper car provides both for safety and comfort.

Overnight train is a good way to travel to Moscow or St. Petersburg, but is substantially slower than the bus to Riga and Vilnius. Tallinn offers frequent flights to cities in Western Europe and the former Soviet Union. Petersburg, Kiev, and Minsk. There is regular ferry service between Helsinki and Tallinn several times daily and Stockholm and Tallinn daily , as well as hydrofoil service between Helsinki and Tallinn from April through October. Ferries can carry motor vehicles, but hydrofoils are for passengers only. All ferries have restaurants, bars, shops, and other diversions.

The trip from Tallinn to Helsinki by ferry is cheaper than flying and then taking a taxi or bus into the Finnish capital. Although this is the most direct ferry route between Tallinn and Stockholm, it is also possible and less expensive to sail to Stockholm via Helsinki. As noted above, car travel around Estonia and the Baltics, or to cities in the Nordic countries, Russia, and Eastern Europe, is feasible.

Avis, Hertz, National Eurorent , and other Western and local rental car firms have outlets in Tallinn and the other Baltic capitals, with rates somewhat higher than in the U. Most borders you would cross in the region cause no problem, except the border between Lithuania and Poland and the border between Estonia and Russia, where delays are frequent. Currently, Estonia has three types of telephone systems, including an analog system, a digital system, and several cellular systems. The rest of the country is undergoing gradual digital upgrades. Phone service in the capital is good but can be sporadic outside Tallinn.

Tallinn residents can dial international calls directly from their residential telephones or book them through the operator. It is slightly cheaper to call the U. Calls to Eastern and Western European countries from Estonia are cheaper than calling those countries from the U. Local digital calls have per-call charges, but long-distance and international-call charges are the same as those for the older system. Many individuals and businesses use cellular systems for phone calls and fax machine transmissions. Cellular systems are more expensive than the other systems for local and long-distance calls.

Computer usage in Estonia is widespread. The entire range of computer software and hardware is available locally at reasonable prices. Internet hookups are reasonably priced and easy to arrange. Microlink, Gateway, and several other familiar computer firms are present in Tallinn. All major computer companies and computer stores have knowledgeable staff people, most of whom speak at least some English.

As occasional fluctuations in electrical voltage occur, bring surge protectors for all computer equipment. The international mail system for letters and packages to and from Estonia is reliable. No difficulties concerning customs, pilferage, or damage to sent or received items has been reported. Currently, mailing letters and packages from Estonia costs more than from the U. Courier firms charge prices comparable to those in the U.

You can use most major credit cards for the fee. In Tallinn, Raadio KuKu was the first independent station; it has primarily a music format that includes an eclectic mix of American rock, jazz, blues, and country music, as well as European contemporary popular and classical music.

Raadio Tallinn, another independent station, broadcasts music and news in Russian. Love Radio plays easy-listening pop with hits from the s and s and has news in English every hour. Since , the number of independent stations on AM and FM has increased, and this trend is expected to continue. Shortwave reception in Tallinn is good and includes broadcasts in various languages. From Tallinn you can watch Eesti Televisioon Estonian Television , three independent Estonian stations, one Russian channel, and four Finnish channels.

Satellite dishes, increasingly popular in Estonia, enable you to receive more programming from abroad. Full satellite-dish receiving equipment sets and installation services are available in Tallinn at reasonable prices. English-language programs and movies are subtitled rather than dubbed on most channels. Multisystem TV's, recommended for local viewing, are available in Tallinn.

Estonia: Picture Book » KidsTravelBooks

Selection is limited and they can be expensive. To receive Finnish channels you will need a special antenna. Bring a multisystem VCR to watch videos. American and European newspapers and magazines are increasingly available in Tallinn at the major hotels and some other shops. Other popular American and English-language magazines primarily fashion and women's magazines are sold in Tallinn, but newsstand prices are higher here. Major newspapers and magazines in German and French are also available.

Several English-language publications written and published in the Baltics are sold regularly in Estonia. The City Paper is a bimonthly magazine and travel guide with interesting articles about current issues and politics in Estonia. The Baltic Times, a weekly newspaper published in Riga, covers the current events of the three Baltic States. Tallinn This Week, a booklet published six times a year, is a guide to Tallinn's restaurants, shopping, cafes, nightlife, and cultural events.

Several Estonian-language papers and magazines also include special English pages or columns. Health care facilities in Estonia are improving, but still fall somewhat below the Western standard. Most health care providers, however, are well-trained professionals and many are conversant in English. Food-handling procedures, although improving, are not yet entirely reliable here. Some food bought at older markets and the rapidly disappearing Soviet-style food stores may be poorly refrigerated.

Although the public water supply in Tallinn is chlorinated, water treatment facilities and distribution pipes are often in disrepair. Therefore, the water supply could be contaminated. High-quality local and imported bottled water is available in all food shops and convenience stores. A passport is required. Tourists and business travelers may stay in Estonia for up to 90 days without a visa. For further information concerning entry requirements and residency permits, please contact the Estonian Embassy, Massachusetts Avenue, N.

Also, please see the Estonian Embassy's Internet home page at http: Special permits are also required and may be obtained from the Cultural Values Export Board. Embassy and obtain updated information on travel and security within Estonia. S Embassy in Tallinn is located at Kentmanni 20, telephone ; fax ; emergency cell phone , if dialed from the U.

The Embassy's home page on the Internet is at http: The pet should have a health certificate which is less than 10 days old and a documented rabies vaccination given more than 30 days, but less than 1 year, before arrival in Estonia. Dogs should also have recent distemper and parvovirus shots. There is no quarantine restriction for household pets brought to Estonia. Competent veterinarians, many of whom speak English, practice in Tallinn. Most veterinarians will commonly obtain pet vaccines and medicines in Finland or elsewhere in Europe.

Veterinarians often make house calls to vaccinate and care for sick pets. Veterinarians' fees in Estonia are low by U. Although pet medical care is inexpensive, pet food is more expensive compared to Washington, D. The kroon was introduced as Estonia's national currency in June , nearly a year after Estonian independence.

It is backed by gold and foreign currency reserves and is fully convertible. The current exchange rate is about Estonia's currency is issued in notes of the following denominations: The coins include 5-, , and cent coins. Credit cards are now widely accepted in Estonia. Traveler's checks are also accepted by many major hotels and restaurants.

Travelers checks may be cashed for kroons in any bank in Tallinn. Currency may be exchanged for kroons at most banks, hotels, and many foreign exchange counters around Tallinn and other parts of Estonia. The kroon is fully convertible and therefore can be exchanged for foreign currency. However, except for those arriving via Finland, it may be difficult or impossible to obtain kroons before arrival.

Credit cards can be used at the major hotels and department stores and most restaurants throughout Estonia. It is possible to get a cash advance in kroons with a major credit card. Advances are available for a commission fee to the bank. The weight and measurement system in Estonia is the metric system. May 1 … May Day. Baltic Independence and Russian Empire. Hiden, John and Patrick Salmon. The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century.

War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival The Compass Press, Yale University Press, Loeber, Dietrich Andre, B. Stanley Vardys, and Laurence PA. Regional Identity Under Soviet Rule: The Case of the Baltic States. Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies, Years of Dependence Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, Estonia and the Estonians. Hoover Institution Press, Years of Independence Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.

Retrieved December 15, from Encyclopedia. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia. The Estonian kroon eek was introduced in August , replacing the Russian ruble.

The metric system is in force. A movable religious holiday is Good Friday , the Friday before Easter. Comparatively, the area occupied by Estonia is slightly smaller than the states of New Hampshire and Vermont combined, with a total area of 45, sq km 17, sq mi. Estonia shares boundaries with the Baltic Sea on the n and w, Russia on the e, and Latvia on the s. Estonia's land boundaries total km mi.

Its coastline is 3, km 2, mi. Estonia's capital city, Tallinn, is located in the northern part of the coast. The topography of Estonia consists mainly of marshy lowlands with a hilly region in the southeast. Over a third of the country is forest. The highest point is Suur Munamagi, located in the Haanja Uplands of the south, with an altitude of m 1, ft. The lowest point is at sea level Baltic Sea. The country has more than 1, natural and artificial lakes. The largest lake is Lake Peipus, located along the border with Russia.

The shared lake has a total area of 3, sq km 1, sq mi. The Narva and Ema are also chief rivers. The proximity of the Baltic Sea influences the coastal climate. At the country's most eastern points, the mean temperature is between 4. Rainfall averages 50 cm 20 in on the coast. Inland, rainfall averages 70 cm 28 in. Rainfall is heaviest during the summer and lightest in the spring. Calcareous soil and a relatively mild climate permit rich flora and fauna in western Estonia. Native plants number over 1, species. The abundance of woodland and plant species provides a suitable habitat for elk, deer, wild boar, wolf, lynx, bear, and otter.

As of , there were at least 65 species of mammals and species of birds. Air, water, and land pollution rank among Estonia's most significant environmental challenges. The combination of , tons of dust from the burning of oil shale by power plants in the northeast part of the country and airborne pollutants from industrial centers in Poland and Germany poses a significant hazard to Estonia's air quality.

Estonia's water resources have been affected by agricultural and industrial pollutants, including petroleum products, which have also contaminated the nation's soil. Some rivers and lakes within the country have been found to contain toxic sediments in excess of 10 times the accepted level for safety. The nation's land pollution problems are aggravated by the 15 million tons of pollutants that are added yearly to the existing million tons of pollutants.

In , 24, acres of the country's total land area were affected. Radiation levels from the nuclear accident at Chernobyl exceed currently accepted safety levels. In , about According to a report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources IUCN , threatened species included four types of mammals, three species of birds, one species of fish, and four species of invertebrates. The European mink and the Atlantic sturgeon are among those listed as endangered.

The population of Estonia in was estimated by the United Nations UN at 1,,, which placed it at number in population among the nations of the world. There were 85 males for every females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for — 10 was expected to be The decline in population was due to an extremely low birth rate 1.

The projected population for the year was 1,, The population density was 30 per sq km 77 per sq mi , with the northern portion of the country being the most densely populated. The capital city, Tallinn, had a population of , in that year. Newly independent in , Estonia was occupied and annexed in by the Soviet Union. It was occupied by German troops the following year. When the Soviet army returned in , more than 60, Estonians fled to Sweden and Germany. Other Estonians were sent to Soviet labor camps. Many Russians migrated to Estonia under Soviet rule.

Some left after Estonia became independent again. After the breakup of the Soviet Union in , Estonia suffered from waves of transit migration. Some 90, Russians with permanent residence in Estonia are citizens of Russia. These large ethnic minorities live segregated from ethnic Estonians and tend not to understand the Estonian language. The total number of migrants living in Estonia in was ,, approximately one-quarter of the population. In a population of , stateless people existed in Estonia. In the net migration rate was estimated as The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

According to a census, Estonians make up about Estonian is a member of the Finno-Ugric linguistic family. It is closely related to Finnish and distantly related to Hungarian. Standard Estonian is based on the North Estonian dialect. Most of the sounds can be pronounced as either short, long, or extra long. Changing the duration of a sound in a word can alter the grammatical function of the word or change its meaning completely.

The language is highly agglutinative, and there are no less than 14 cases of noun declension. Most borrowed words are from German. The alphabet is Roman. The first text written in Estonian dates from Estonian is the official language and is spoken by about Christianity was introduced into Estonia in the 11th century. During the Reformation it converted largely to Lutheranism, although political events in the 18th and 19th century occasioned a strong Russian Orthodox presence.

Independence from the Soviet Union , achieved in , relieved the pressure under which religious groups had labored since In there were an estimated congregations of the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church with about , members. There were also about 59 congregations of the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church 20, members and 30 congregations of the Estonian Orthodox Church , members. While Lutherans and Orthodox constitute the majority, there are smaller communities of Baptists, Methodists, Roman Catholics, Methodist, Jehovah 's Witnesses, Pentecostals, and other Christian denominations.

There are also Jewish, Muslim , and Buddhist communities; however, each of these minority faiths has less than 6, followers. About 70, people in the country claimed to be atheists. The constitution provides for freedom of religion and this right is generally respected in practice. Basic Christian ecumenical religious instruction is available in public schools as an elective. Certain Christian holidays are observed as national holidays. Estonia in had a total of km mi of broad gauge railroad track, all common carrier railway lines, not including industrial lines, of which km 82 mi was electrified.

In order to overcome problems in rolling stock shortages and load fluctuations, a second line of tracks is being laid along the Tallinn-Narva route. Highways in totaled 56, km 35, mi , of which 13, km 8, mi are paved, including 99 km 62 mi of expressways. Sea transportation has increased especially since the completion of Tallinn's new harbor and the acquisition of high capacity vessels. Ships carry grain from North America and also serve West African cargo routes. In , a ferry service opened between Tallinn and Stockholm.

During one of these commutes in September , the ferry Estonia sank off the coast of Finland, resulting in about deaths. As of , Estonia had some km mi of navigable internal waterways. There were an estimated 29 airports in , of which 12 had paved runways, and one heliport as of The principal airport at Tallinn has direct air links to Helsinki and Stockholm. Estonian Air is the principal international airline. In , about , passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights. What is now Estonia was ruled in turn by the Danes, the Germans, and the Swedes from the Middle Ages until the 18th century.

Russia annexed the region in During the 19th century, an Estonian nationalist movement arose which by the early 20th century sought independence. After the Bolshevik Revolution and the advance of German troops into Russia, Estonia declared independence on 24 February But after the German surrender to the Western powers in November , Russian troops attempted to move back into Estonia.

The Estonians, however, pushed out the Soviet forces by April , and the following year Soviet Russia recognized the Republic of Estonia. The German Army retreated in , and Soviet forces once again occupied Estonia. Taking advantage of the relatively greater freedom allowed under Mikhail Gorbachev in the late s, an Estonian nationalist movement, the Popular Front , was launched in Estonia declared its independence from Moscow on 20 August A new constitution was adopted on 28 June With much fanfare, the last Russian tanks and 2, troops were removed from Estonia on 17 August , ending 50 years of military presence in Estonia.

Russia also announced it would begin dismantling two nuclear reactors within Estonia. Estonia demanded the return of more than sq mi of land that Russia considered part of its territory, but that belonged to Estonia before World War II. When Estonia renewed its claim to those lands, the Russian government began constructing border posts, many of which are guarded by armed soldiers and linked by fences. One of the worst maritime disasters since World War II occurred on 28 September , when the ferry Estonia , en route from Tallinn to Sweden, sank off the coast of Finland, killing about people.

Investigators reported that locks on the huge front cargo door of the ferry failed during a storm, letting in a flood of water that caused the ship to sink in only a few minutes. The parliamentary vote reflected dissatisfaction among rural inhabitants and pensioners and signaled a change from the vigorous free-market reforms that dominated Estonia's transition from Soviet rule. The results of the election, however, didn't significantly alter Estonia's commitment to a balanced budget, a stable currency, or a good foreign investment climate.

In September Meri won a second presidential term, although the election was turned over to an electoral college after no candidate won the required two-thirds majority in parliamentary balloting in August. Reformers once again won control of Estonia's parliament in the March general elections, in which a coalition of center-right parties gained a slim majority, wining 53 out of seats.

However, the left-leaning Center Party won 28 seats, the highest number for a single party. Mart Laar was named prime minister. The new government was expected to emphasize political reforms as much as economic ones, focusing on the elimination of corruption and inefficiency in the civil service , courts, and police. Since it gained its independence in , Estonia's foreign policy focused on integration with Western Europe , with the specific long-range goals of EU and NATO membership. One of these goals received a boost in when Estonia was invited by the European Union to begin negotiations toward membership.

In December , the EU formally invited Estonia, one of 10 new candidate countries, to join the body as of May Internally, Estonia still faces the challenge of integrating its minority population of ethnic Russians fully into the nation's public life. However, because none of the presidential candidates received the required two-thirds vote in parliament after three rounds of voting, an electoral college , composed of all members of parliament and local government representatives, elected the president.

In January , Laar resigned as prime minister and Siim Kallas took his place. The next presidential election was to take place fall Parliamentary elections held on 2 March resulted in the formation of a coalition government made up of the center-right Res Publica, the right-leaning Reform Party, and the rural party People's Union.

Thirty-six-year-old Juhan Parts became prime minister on 10 April. The next parliamentary elections were scheduled for March As of , Estonia had the most advanced information infrastructure of any country in the former Communist Eastern bloc. Around , of Estonia's approximately 1. Citizens use the Internet to access state services and to conduct any number of business transactions, and many people who never owned a landline telephone now rely on wireless phones. After nearly 10 years of negotiations, in May Russia and Estonia signed a treaty delimiting their border. In June, the Estonian parliament ratified the border treaty, but introduced an amendment referring to the Soviet occupation, despite warnings from Russia not to do so.

Russia reacted by withdrawing from the treaty. Estonia adopted a new post-Soviet constitution on 28 June It declares Estonia a parliamentary democracy with a unicameral parliament. The parliament Riigikogu has seats. Members of parliament serve four-year terms. The president who is elected for a five-year term , prime minister and the cabinet make up the executive branch of government.

The president is the head of state while the prime minister is the head of government. Both the parliament and the president are elected by direct universal suffrage of citizens 18 years or older. The Popular Front of Estonia, founded in to unite pro-independence forces, has lost much of its influence and role since the attainment of independence. In addition, a Russian Democratic Movement has emerged that specifically represents the Russian-speaking population of Estonia. In the parliamentary elections of March , the Coalition Party and Rural Union made up of four parties: The Pro Patria and the Estonian National Independence Party, which had allied themselves in the election, joined forces at the end of that year to form the Fatherland Union.

In the March elections, the Fatherland Union and two other parties formed a broader coalition that won a narrow majority in parliament, garnering a total of 53 parliamentary seats Fatherland Union, 18; Estonian Reform Party, 18; Moderates, However, the party winning the single largest number of seats was the Estonian Center Party, with The remaining seats were distributed as follows: In the 2 March elections, the Center Party and Res Publica, a new political party , each won 28 seats in the Riigikogu; the Reform Party took 19 seats; the People's Union won 13; the Fatherland Union took 7 seats; and the Moderates won 6.

The Res Publica, Reform, and People's Union parties formed a coalition government, securing 60 of seats in parliament. The next parliamentary elections were to be held March Estonia's major administrative divisions are 15 counties maakond. The counties are further subdivided into municipalities — rural communes vald and urban municipalities linn.

Since October , there were municipalities in Estonia, 34 of them urban and of them rural. While only citizens are allowed to vote in Estonia's national elections, residents of Estonia, including noncitizens, are allowed to vote in local elections. Noncitizens, however, cannot be candidates in local or national elections. Office-holders serve three-year terms. The last local elections were held on 16 October The constitution established a court system consisting of three levels of courts: The National Court engages in constitutional review of legislation.

At the rural and city courts, the decisions are made by a majority vote with a judge and two lay members. There are 2 city courts, 14 county courts, and 4 administrative courts in Estonia 20 courts of first instance. The National Court has 19 judges. The constitution provides for an independent judiciary and the judiciary is independent in practice. The Chief Justice of the National Court, nominated by the president and confirmed by the Riigikogu, nominates National Court judges, whose nominations need to be confirmed by the Riigikogu.

The Chief Justice of the National Court also nominates the lower court judges who are then appointed by the president. Judges are appointed for life. The interim criminal code abolishes a number of political and economic crimes under the former Soviet Criminal Code. A new criminal procedural code was adopted in The constitution provides for a presumption of innocence, access to prosecution evidence, confrontation and cross-examination of witnesses, and public trials.

Active armed forces numbered 4, in , with some 24, reservists. The Army maintained four defense regions with 3, soldiers. The Navy numbered active members and the Air Force had active personnel. The Estonian Border Guard numbered 2, and also served as the coast guard. Estonia has one of the strongest economies among the former Soviet republics. Light manufacturing dominates industry, with major sectors that include textiles, furniture, and electronics. Agriculture is based mainly on rearing livestock, but dairy farming is also significant. Estonia is self-sufficient in electrical power.

The economy started to revive after the monetary reform, reintroducing the preoccupation quasi-convertible Estonian kroon. Estonia's economy quickly became one of the strongest post-Communist economies in eastern Europe as successive governments remained committed to the implementation of market reforms. Growth continued until , when Estonia underwent its first post-Soviet economic downturn.

The economy began to improve the following year. Estonia's economic progress is linked to its liberal foreign trade regime there are few tariffs or nontariff barriers , effective bankruptcy legislation, and swift privatization. State subsidies were in the process of being abolished in the early s, and all of these measures helped to stabilize and restructure the economy. As a result, Estonia received high levels of foreign direct investment. Major growth sectors include information technology, transportation, and construction services.

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Estonia was formally invited to join the EU in December , and was finally accepted in May The country became a member of the WTO in The GDP growth rate in was 6. The inflation rate has been fluctuating, but, at 3. Unemployment was, at 9. Electronics and telecommunications are two of the main growth sectors, but Estonia is strongly dependent on the economic performance of three of its main trade partners: Finland, Sweden, and Germany.

The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity PPP rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 7. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 4. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings.

It was estimated that for the period to household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2. It was estimated that in about 8. In , Estonia's workforce was estimated at , As of , agriculture accounted for 6. Unemployment was estimated at 9. The Estonian constitution guarantees the right to form and freely join a union or employee association. In , the EAKL claimed 58, members. Workers had the right to strike, and of collective bargaining , both of which were freely practiced. The statutory minimum employment age is 18, although children aged 15 to 17 years may work with parental permission.

Children between the ages of 13 and 15 can also work, but in addition to parental or guardian approval, they must also have the approval of a labor inspector. Minors under the age of 18 are also prohibited from performing dangerous and hazardous work. The number of hours minors can work and when they can work are also limited. The standard workweek is legally set at 40 hours with a mandatory hour rest period. In , agricultural lands covered , hectares 1,, acres , or By , however, there were 36, private farms, with an average size of Agriculture accounted for Principal crops in included potatoes, , tons; barley, , tons; wheat, , tons; rye, 19, tons; and oats, 75, tons.

In agricultural products accounted for 5. In , there were , pigs, , head of cattle, 38, sheep, and 2,, chickens. Meat production is well developed and provides a surplus for export. In , 15, tons of beef, 40, tons of pork, and 15, tons of poultry were produced. Th at year, Estonia's dairy cows produced , tons of milk. Cattle breeding was the main activity during the Soviet era, and production quotas were set extremely high, which required massive imports of feed. Pork production has risen in recent years to offset the decline in the total cattle herd.

The wool clip in was 80 tons. Estonia's Baltic and Atlantic catch is marketed in the former Soviet Union, in spite of its own need for quality fish products. The fishing industry is seen as an important way to acquire access to the world market, but scarcity of raw materials currently limits its development. The total catch in was 80, tons. The production of wood and wood products is the second-largest industry after textiles; two cellulose plants at Tallinn and Kehra use local raw material, but have caused significant environmental problems. Roundwood production amounted to Oil shale was the primary mineral of importance.

The country also produced cement, clays, nitrogen, peat, sand and gravel, and industrial silica sand. Production figures for were: Phosphate quarrying at the Maardu deposit ceased because of environmental concerns. Estonia gets most of its energy from oil shale, found in abundance in the northeastern region of the country. Oil shale is burned to produce electricity and accounts for approximately 6, barrels per day of oil production in With domestic consumption in that year totaling 60, barrels per day, Estonia had to import the difference primarily from Russia.

There are no natural gas reserves in Estonia, which relies on imports from Russia. Natural gas consumption in stood at 50 billion cu ft, with imports accounting for all of it. Estonia is however, a net exporter of electricity, sending its surplus power to parts of northwest Russia and to Latvia. In , a total of 8. Domestic consumption of electricity for that year totaled 6. Surplus electricity from the two plants is exported to Latvia and the Russian Federation. Estonian industrial production focuses on shipbuilding, electric motors, furniture, clothing, textiles, paper, shoes, and apparel.

Extractive industries include oil shale, phosphate, and cement production. Construction was slated to be a principal growth sector in Between and , industrial output shrank by an average of In , industry had a Current industries include engineering, electronics, wood and wood products, textiles, information technology, and telecommunications. The Academy of Sciences, founded in , has divisions of astronomy and physics, informatics and technical sciences, and biology, geology, and chemistry, and research institutes devoted to biology, ecology, experimental biology, zoology and botany, environmental biology, marine sciences, astrophysics and atmospheric physics, chemical physics and biophysics, chemistry, geology, physics, computer research and design, cybernetics, and energy.

Other research institutes in the country are devoted to preventive medicine and oil shale research. Tallinn Technical University founded in offers science and engineering degrees. The University of Tartu, founded in , has faculties of biology and geography, mathematics, medicine, and physics and chemistry, as well as an institute of general and molecular pathology.

Estonian Agricultural University was founded in Of that total, Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Estonia's domestic trade was underdeveloped by international standards. Most trading companies were owned either by the state or by cooperatives. In recent years, many shops have been privatized or municipalized, new private shops established, and the assortment of goods widened.

By , there were 4, shops in Estonia. Open-air markets control a large segment of domestic food sales. Market prices are usually lower than those in grocery stores, making it difficult for them to compete. Beginning in , the value of exports began to surpass that of imports, and the share of trade with other former Soviet. The most important export industry in Estonia is electronics Cork, wood, and their manufactures account for the second-largest consolidated group of commodity exports Other important exports include apparel 5.

The bulk of exports went to Finland Imports included machinery and equipment Since independence, Estonia has dismantled a Soviet-era system of trade barriers and tariffs to become one of the world's most free-trading nations. In the early s, exports to the West quadrupled, helping to generate a strong surplus in the current account. By the late s and early s, however, the balance of trade on goods became generally negative.

Services and capital inflows produced income in the form of foreign direct investment, which remained strong. The current account balance was also. All links with the Soviet budget and financial system were severed in , and today Estonia has the strongest and most advanced banking system in the Baltic States. In January the Bank of Estonia was created, which merged two years later with the Estonian branch of Gosbank the Soviet State Bank to form the country's new central bank.

Savings banks include the Estonian Savings Bank, a bank with branches. Like those of other Eastern European countries, Estonia's banking sector has suffered from an excessive number of banks: Consolidations took place in , with the banks being merged in Eesti Uhispank Estonian Unified Bank. As of there were 7 licensed commercial banks in Estonia. With combined assets of eek4. Hansabank remained Estonia's largest bank, especially after its merger with Hoiupank Saving Bank. In , SwedBank bid successfully for a majority interest in Hansabank. Since independence, Estonia's banks have played a major role in fostering a climate of economic stability.

In , they took the initiative in tightening credit in the wake of the Asian financial crisis. This action, which resulted in a rise in interest rates, checked fears of a too-rapid economic expansion, which would bring about inflation. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 4.

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There are two stock exchanges in Estonia: Since Estonia regained its independence, it has sought to develop a system of health insurance involving the decentralization of medical care. Third-party automobile liability insurance is compulsory. The new government exercises fiscal responsibility characterized by a strictly balanced budget. No transfers or preferential credits are given to public enterprises, and governmental borrowing from the central bank is forbidden. In January Estonia instituted a centralized treasury system for managing the government's budget.

Public debt in amounted to 3. The International Monetary Fund IMF reported that in , the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were eek29, million and expenditures were eek29, million. Government outlays by function were as follows: Estonia does not tax the income of resident or permanently established nonresident companies. Instead, they are subject only to a tax on distributions dividends, fringe benefits, gifts, profit distributions, and those payments not related to the payer's business to resident legal entities, resident and nonresident persons, and nonresident companies.

Generally, capital gains received by resident persons and companies are taxed as income. For companies, the gains are taxed as part of the distribution, when it is made. Individuals do not pay a capital gains tax on the sale of their primary residence. Some school fees, living allowances, and interest on loans for the purchase of residential housing are deductible from taxable income.

However, Estonia has double tax treaties with at least 22 countries in which withholding taxes are eliminated or substantially reduced. A new Law on Social Tax came into effect in January There are relatively few allowable deductions from taxable income in the Estonian tax code. The annual land tax varies from 0. Excise duties are levied on tobacco, alcoholic beverages, motor fuel, motor oil, and fuel oil but not liquefied or compresses gas , motor vehicles, and packages imposed to encourage recycling of package material.

There is a gambling tax, and a customs processing fee on each customs declaration submitted. Rights of recording are taxed at 0. Estonia has a liberal trade regime, with few tariff or nontariff barriers. Among the few items that have tariffs placed on them are agricultural goods produced in countries that are not among Estonia's preferred trading partners. There is also a value-added tax VAT levied ad valorem on everything except a few select commodities, including medicines and medical equipment, funeral equipment, and goods for nonprofit purposes.

Estonia has successfully attracted a large number of joint ventures with Western companies, benefiting from a well-developed service sector and links with Scandinavian countries. The foreign investment act passed by the Supreme Council in September offers tax relief to foreign investors. Property brought into Estonia by foreign investors as an initial capital investment is exempt from customs duties, but is subject to value-added tax. A foreign investor is legally entitled to repatriate profits after paying income tax.

Estonia's share of world FDI flows from to were 2. Estonian agribusiness is an area of growing interest to foreign investors. During the past decade, Estonia has been one of the best performing Central and Eastern European countries in terms of foreign investments attracted. After passing an ownership act in June , the government began a privatization program at the beginning of Most of the nearly state-owned companies have since passed into new hands. As of , only the port and the main power plants remained state-controlled.

Estonia has excellent intellectual property laws, has enacted modern bankruptcy legislation, and has seen the emergence of well-managed privately held banks. The constitution mandates a balanced budget, and the climate for foreign investment is positive. In , the economy was vulnerable, and the size of the current account deficit was a particular concern. The economy expanded at healthy rates in the first half of , and is expected to continue the trend for a couple of more years. This growth was fueled by increased private consumption and fixed investment. The export sector has been another sector that has registered high growth rates, and it is predicted to out-perform the import sector in coming years.

Social security programs were originally introduced in After independence from the Soviet Union, new social insurance systems were introduced. The current law was implemented in Pension systems are funded by contributions from employers and the government. Retirement is set at age 63 for men and 59 for women, and is set to increase to age 63 for both men and women. Other social welfare programs include worker's compensation, unemployment assistance, survivorship payments, maternity and sickness benefits, and family allowances.

There is a family allowance for all children under 17 years of age. Women constitute slightly more than half the work force, and in theory are entitled to equal pay. Although women on average achieve higher educational levels than men, their average pay was lower. Sexual harassment is not officially reported. Domestic violence is a widespread problem and is grossly underreported; spousal abuse is not a criminal offense. Public attention is focused increasingly on the welfare of children in the wake of family crises caused by economic dislocation.

Educational issues were aggressively addressed in Ethnic Russians sometimes face discrimination in housing and employment. Estonian language requirements make it difficult for many of them to find public sector employment. Citizenship has not automatically been extended to ethnic Russians living in Estonia, and a significant proportion of the population remain noncitizens.

EDITOR'S NOTE

Discrimination based on race, sex, nationality, or religion is illegal under the constitution. Prison conditions remain poor, and police brutality is commonly reported. A major reform of the primary care system was implemented in , making family practitioners independent contractors with combined private and public-financed payment.

In , there was an estimated fertility rate of 1. The maternal mortality rate was 50 maternal deaths per , live births as of