Comment jai amené Gotthard au sommet (French Edition)

Freres de Limbourg, Fevrier, 47 Freres de Limbourg, Avril, 50 Frangois Clouet, Elisabeth d'Autriche, 52 Jean Cousin, Eva Prima Pandora, 59 Nicolas Poussin, Shepherds of Arcadia, 64 Nicolas Poussin, Landscape with Fauns and Nymphs, 68 Claude Lorrain, The Flight into Egypt, 71 Philippe de Champaigne, Viscount de Turenne, 75 Antoine Coysevox, The Grand Conde, 76 Philippe de Champaigne, Cardinal Richelieu, 77 Hyacinthe Rigaud, Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, 78 Pierre Mignard, Madame de Maintenon, 80 Nicolas Poussin, The Holy Family, 81 Georges de la Tour, St.

Sebastian Mourned by Women, 84 Palace of Versailles from the Gardens, 85 Val de Grace, Paris, 87 Francis Xavier, 90 Philippe de Champaigne, La Madeleine penitente, 91 Attributed to Nicolas Poussin, Moses saved from the Waters, 94 Philippe de Champaigne, Ex voto: Louis Le Nain, Peasant Family, 97 Nicolas Lancret, Music Lesson, Jean Antoine Watteau, La Danse dans un pavilion, Jean Antoine Watteau, Embarkation for Cythera, Germain Boffrand, Salon of the Princess.

Hotel Soubise, Paris, Jean Honore Fragonard, Love Letter, Jean Antoine Watteau, Gilles, Jean Antoine Watteau, Gersaint's Signboard, Jean-Antoine Houdon, Statue of Voltaire, Frangois Rude, Le Depart pour la guerre, Paul Delaroche, The Young Martyr, Jacques Louis David, Madame Recamier, Eugene Delacroix, La Barque de Dante, Antoine Gros, The Battle of Eylau, Antoine Gros, Napoleon at Arcole, Eugene Delacroix, Les Massacres de Scio, Pierre Paul Prud'hon, La Justice et la vengeance divine poursuivant le crime, Honor6 Daumier, The Uprising, Jean Frangois Millet, The Sower, Jean Frangois Millet, The Reapers, Pierre Paul Prud'hon, The Crucifixion, Gustave Courbet, Funeral at Ornans, Gustave Courbet, The Wave, Paul Signac, Entree du port de Marseilles, Auguste Renoir, Les Grands Boulevards au printemps, Claude Monet, Cathedral of Rouen, Auguste Renoir, Luncheon of the Boating Party, Georges Seurat, La Grande Jatte, Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette, Georges Seurat, Le Cirque, Edgar Degas, The Dancer with the Bouquet, Edgar Degas, Aux Courses, Edgar Degas, Les Repasseuses, Paul Cezanne, The Basket of Apples, Juan Gris, The Chessboard, Constantin Brancusi, Bird in Space, Paul Gauguin, Jacob Wrestling with the Angel, Paul Gauguin, la Orana Maria, Henri Rousseau, The Sleeping Gypsy, Vincent van Gogh, The Blue Girl, Vincent van Gogh, Night Cafe, Tympanum of the Portal of the Abbey Church in Moissac.

Old French, carried over from the ninth century in lives of saints, comes of age in the chansons de geste of the twelfth century. Joseph Bedier has linked these epics of Charle- magne, Count Guillaume, and Doon de Mayence to the Cluniac sanc- tuaries and pilgrim roads. The epics and the Romanesque cathedrals of the eleventh and twelfth centuries belong closely together anyway, because the epics in their motives and concepts of form are witnesses of the same Romanesque art as are the shrines themselves.

This bond between Romanesque art and literature comes from the fact that in their approach to the Divine they both emphasize the majesty of God, and in their approach to the human they confine themselves to the typical. In addition to these motifs there is, as far as imagination is con- cerned, a singularly fantastic element that is expressed in an additive or cumulative technique. This tympanum represents Christ surrounded by the four Evange- lists in symbolic fashion.

The twenty-four ancients of St. John's Apocalypse appear below them. Christ as the Judge of the world is depicted here in the form that Romanesque art inherited from the Byzantine mosaics, the Pantocrator or Majestas Domini. In other words, one is confronted here with the archaic type of ruler who appears in exactly the same concept in the chansons de geste.

This is significant of the fact that at that time nei- ther in art nor in literature did one dare to impersonate a Christ whose humanity would be overstressed. The ruler king as such has no tradition in literature. He appears to be Charlemagne stereotyped as Pantocrator. As unchangeable and typical as this Christ in glory appears on all the other Romanesque tympana, just as unchangeable appears the epic king in almost all the chansons de geste.

If there is any variation, it is negligible. It is true that different tympana use slightly different attitudes for Christ; sometimes he is seated, sometimes standing, turned to the right, or turned to the left. The epic king may be called the one ' with the grayish beard ' or ' with the snowy beard ' instead of ' with the flowery beard,' but the fun- damental pattern does not change. The Majestas Domini is, however, reflected in still another way through- out the chansons de geste, namely, in the concept of God and expressions that refer to Him. The tympanum alone explains the current locution ' God of the throne,' because on the tympanum Christ is seated on a throne, and tron consequently will soon mean in the epics and in Old French in general ' paradise,' ' heaven.

The majestas idea as such is also responsible for all the current names and epithets of God in the epics, which are indicative of the same spiritual character of the tympanum: Deus de majeste, omnipotent, alteor, altisme, glorios, posteis, vrais gouvernere, verai justicier, verai droiturier; Fere tot puissant, de gloire, vray pere tout puissant; Damedeus le glorieus poissant, glorieus rois celestes, glorios sire pere; Rois de majeste, roi de tot le monde, rois glorius et forz.

This glorious Divine Majesty, King, Judge, and Sire of the sculpture is surrounded by uncanny, wondrous animals.

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John, the ox of St. Luke, the lion of St. Mark, and the man of St. These symbolic animals, pur- posely unrealistic, are as unfamiliar and extraordinary to modern man as the contemporary Bestiaire of Philippe de Thaiin. The monstrous nature of these beasts is apparent. Henri Focillon writes of the symbolic animals, for whose birth Pliny, Oriental idols, old Irish and Germanic animal ornaments, and Christian symbolism are all responsible: The romanesque art perceived creatures only through a network of orna- mentation and under monstrous appearances.

It had multiplied man in the animal and the animal in the fabulous beast. It had hung upon its capitals a whole series of chimeric creatures and marked the tympanum of the churches with the seal of the Apocalypse. There is in stone a revival of the animal life of the steppes This power of synthesis, which mixes life with life and shapes individuals to make out of them species of double monsters, is at the core of romanesque stylistics. He is therefore symbolic of Christ and in particular Christ at the Last Judgment.

The different parts of the lion's body are indicative of divinity, justice, and so on: Leiins en mainte guise [The lion in many a way Multes bestes justise Judges many animals, Pur go est reis leiins; Therefore the lion is king; Or oez ses faguns: Now listen to what his features are: II at le vis herdu [hardi] He has a keen face, Gros le col et kernu A big neck and a mane around Quare le piz devant In front a square breast Hardi et cumbatant; Daring and ready to fight; Graille at le trait derriere Slim is his hind part, Cue de grant maniere.

Li leiins signifie The lion is a symbol Le fiz Sainte Marie Of the Son of Holy Mary When he will judge them Force de Deit6 The power of the Godhead Demustre piz carr6, Is symbolized by the square breast, La cue par nature The tail naturally Mustre sainte escripture Is revealed by Holy Scripture U la cue est justise Where the tail is the justice Ki desur nus est mise.

Therefore the eagle is also described as follows: They may account for the particular antirealism of the tympa- num at Moissac. The Assidam, for instance, is a winged camel: One of the latest symbolic animals among the zodiac symbols of Chartres cathedral, namely the he-goat entangled in a bush, generally interpreted realistically as a drolerie, looks very much like the Aptalon of Philippe de Thaiin: Puis quiert un buissunet Menu e espesset, U el se vient jiier E ses comes froter. Unc ne set mot la beste Quant prise est par la teste E qu'ele est enlaciee E el buissun liee.

No sooner is the animal aware of it Than it is taken by the head And is entangled And captured in the bush. Beyond the conceptual implications, however, there is also a formal principle involved. The juvenile zeal of these first young generations of the Romance-Germanic Francs de France shows them as heirs of a misunder- stood antiquity.

They try to take in with their youthful eyes and unite in an artistic entity as many parts as is psychologically possible. Modern ex- periments have found that five subunits are the maximum a single glance can catch. This is also the acknowledged, unsymbolic, and formal explana- tion of the five units on the usual Romanesque tympanum.

Christ and the four evangelical animals as nucleus of this principle will soon be paral- leled by the five superimposed galleries registres of the later tympana. The five parts of the story are: This five- act story is told in strophes of five lines each — that is, lines writ- ten in ten-syllable lines of five iambic feet each.

Marsilie's de- feat bv Charles; 4 Intriguing is the fact that the psychological principle of five units is counterbalanced by the symbolic principle of three units on the panel as well as in the Roland. The tvmpanum of Moissac strikes us first as the triad of Christy the Apostles, and the ancients; the poet of the Chanson de Roland, as Wil- liam S.

The presence of the ancients of the Apocalypse has another implication besides the scriptural one for this young French nation of Likewise with the pagans, Baligant is of an almost mythical age, judging from the incred- ible exaggeration of having him outlive Virgil as well as Homer: Tympanum of La Madeleine in Vezelay.

He outlived Virgil as well as Homer. This tympanum of has been described very pertinently by Marcel Aubert as follows: One knows the magnificent representation of the Pentecost, sculptured on the tympanum of the central door with its great figures dressed in cloth that draws concentric folds on breast, hips, and knees, tucked up below.

The artist, guided by a scholarly cleric, nourished by the sermons of Honorius Augustodunensis, has represented, together with the Pentecost, the tradition of the keys, and he has figured around the central composition, on the lintel and in the semicircle of the vault. Scythians with dogs' heads, dwarfs with unproportioned ears, pygmies who use ladders to mount on horseback, pagan people whom the Apostles following Christ are to baptize in the Spirit, as Saint John the Baptist standing upright against the pier had baptized in the water.

And the miracles are worked: The blind see; the deaf hear; the lame walk. Heaping up scenes by a simple addition and juxtaposition is illustrated by the combined emission of the Holy Spirit and the conferring of the keys, as well as the colorful procession of the nations on the lintel, rem- iniscent of a parallel attempt to describe the battle arrays in the chansons de geste. Hero after hero, battle unit after battle unit, helmets, armor, spears, and banners are shown without any subordinating link.

Olivier, watching, in the Roland, the approach of the pagans, sees in a ' teichos- copy ' a mass of overwhelming details. They are, like those on the Vezelay lintel, brought together by a cumulative technique. Admitting the in- adequacy of this technique, both sculptor and author solve their problem relatively skilfully; both evoke masses of people by surface details. As be- fore the reconnoitering eyes of Olivier, so before the visionary eyes of the apostles appear all the pagans of the earth, la paiennie gent, le paienismCj who are to be converted to the Faith: Devers Espaigne vei venir tel bruur [turmoil], Tanz blancs osberes, tanz elmcs flambius, Icist ferunt nos Frangeis grant irur.

Luisent cil elme ki ad or sunt gemmez E cil escuz e cil osbercs safrez [brodes d'orfroi] E cil espiez, cil gunfanun fermez. Tant en i ad que mesure n'en set. Jo ai paiens veiiz Unc mais nuls horn en tere n'en vit plus. Therefore he called Roland his companion: From Spain I see a big crowd coming, Many white haubercs, many helmets like flames, This people will cause us Frenchmen great anger.

They sparkle, those helmets which are studded with jewels And those shields and those haubercs embroidered with golden thread And these spears, these undisplayed banners. They are so many, that there is no limitation. I have seen so many pagans That never anybody on earth has seen more of them. La contredite gent [The enemy people Ki plus sunt neir que nen est arremenz Who are blacker than black ink Ne n'unt de blanc ne mais que suls And have of white nothing but the les denz.

These stories begin very early. The Alexander frag- ment of Alberic de Briangon is older even than the Roland. The lost parts of this Romanesque epic may be supplied by the somewhat later rhymed novel by Alexandre de Bernay and Lambert li Tors. Here are not only Pliny's monstrous dwarfs and giants with dogs' heads and pigs' noses, as on the Vezelay tympanum, but still others walking on their heads; there are also nymphs and girl-plants girls growing in meadows and upon trees , fanciful motifs that the Old French authors probably took from the Arch- priest Leo.

D'autre part de la rive a homes apparuz Que sunt per mei les cors jusqu'as unbils fenduz, E ot chascuns dos testes e dos piez e dos bus. On the other side of the river appeared men Who are split in the middle of the body down to the navel, And so everybody had two heads and two feet and two trunks. The key can be found in the composition of the frieze above the lintel. There is definitely a movement from both sides toward the center. As on the frieze, so also in the arch of the vault: The same composition dominates the uppermost panel to the left. This detail shows further that the group of three persons at the right interrupts by a contrasting position the dynamic movement of the group at the left and even of the whole left part of the arch.

This contrasting movement appears everywhere, as in the right of the frieze where the procession of the nations is interrupted by some people mounting on horseback. Similarly in Roland, all the peers are so concentrated around the Em- peror Charles, be he absent or present, that scholars have wanted to call the Chanson de Roland the Chanson de Charles Magnes. Nonetheless, in the Roland there is also a particular ' poetic panel ' with its own center of gravity, the battle of Ronceval.

Charles is far away from the call of the horn, which reaches him feebly, and the interest focuses on the dying friends, Roland and Olivier. In the medallion reserved to them by the poet, they argue, discuss, fight, aid one another, make their mutual excuses, bleed, weep, pray, swoon, die.

They join in ghastly succession the line moving to heroic death in defeat. Hence in both the sculpture and the literature of the Romanesque epoch there is a principle of static, addi- tive composition opposed to a distinctly recognizable trend of dynamic movement and countcrmovcmcnt. This movement gracefully disturbs the rigid static principle.

The effect is not achieved through the great and central topics thcmsehes but by harmonizing their opposite elements in detail scenes, which can be more easily arranged and mastered. The Romanesque sculptor in his first attempt at a dynamic procedure shows each single person, each slightly arranged group, and all of them together in the particular act of marching.

This same pseudodynamic tech- nique is found in the Chanson de Roland. Relentlessly the poet describes how each baron and all the Francs give blows to and receive blows from the enemies lines But he cannot depict the movement of a battle, and he cannot invent really individual battle scenes. Instead, he relates in the clumsy language of the frieze of Vezelay: There is, for instance, the interruption of the enu- merative series by motifs of concentration.

On the tympanum this would be, as mentioned above, the dwarfs' difficult mounting on horseback, an operation that interrupts the whole march of the nations. In the Roland it is the insertion of atmospheric sketches whose lyricism intrudes into the accumulative battle scenes: Halt sunt li pui e tenebrus e grant [High are the mountains and dark and Li val perfunt et les ewes curant. Halt sunt li pui et mult halt les arbres, [High arc the mountains and very high Quatre perruns i ad luisant de marbre.

More important than the iconography is the significance of light to the medieval man, for in the matter of art forms he had inherited the resplendent Carolingian verroterie cloisonnee and altar statues studded with jewels, and in the matter of concepts the medieval idea of Gratia divina pulchrificat sicut lux. Hence there is light everywhere. Christ's mandorla and Christ's halo doubly express divine light, as though this Christ with light around the body, light around the head, and light streaming from the hands represents something similar to the light of the Creed, lumen de lumine, or the light of the hymn, ' O Lux, heata Trinitas!

This light also accompanies the angels who appear to the heroes of the chansons de geste: Un angre du chiel contreval devala. Mes de la grant clarte le bon quens aveugla. Doone de Mayence, [An angel from Heaven came down to earth. But blinded the count with his great brightness.

E Durendal, cum es bele et clere et blanche! Cuntre soleil si luises et reflambes. And under the sun you are shining and full of flames! Joiuse, unches ne fut sa per Ki cascun jur muet trente clartez. Esclargiz est li vespres et li jurz. Cuntre soleil reluisent cil adub [armures] Osbcrcs et helmes i getent grant flabur [flammes] [Lighted is the evening and the day.

Under the sun the armors are shining. Haubercs and helmets are reflecting a great blaze. The magi are always characterized by a crown; therefore even if they are sleeping in their beds as also on one of the capitals of Autun , they must wear this crown. The iconographic rule is: This is the language of patterns in medieval art. In literature, this appears still more striking. A young hero may become a traitor in the course of the plot; he does not thereby lose his epithet ' of the bold heart.

Two other stereotyped settings are ' a marble stone ' and ' a brown rock. Emotional-Dynamic Approach to a Symbolic World At the end of the twelfth century, art and literature become dynamic, enlivened, graceful, elegant, feminine, more secular. The Gothic cathedrals replace the Romanesque ones as the Cistercians replace the Cluniacs in spiritual leadership. In like manner, replacing the chansons de geste are the courtly romances with their short meters, rapid narrative rhythm, refined action, aristocratic problems, and alluring plots charged with suspense. The stained-glass windows, the Gothic tym- pana, and the sculptures of the cathedrals represent the fascinating, attrac- tive, and familiar aspects of Christianity.

Together with the life of Christ on earth, the glory of the Blessed Virgin, a host of saints with their curious and variegated legends, and all the secular knowledge of history and as- tronomy, botany and zoology invade the sanctuaries. These are used de- liberately and consciously in order to make the Gothic cathedral a specu- lum historiale and morale as well as a biblia pauperum. In secular literature there is a similar transformation. The noble ladies read the romans antiques and courtois, the Celtic lais and lyric poems in the troubadour style for their adventures, casuistic love problems, or stories of passion, such as Tristan et Yseult and its counterpart Cliges and Fenice, or those of a more smoothed-down pattern that could be decently imitated, such as Erec et Enide or Yvain and Laudine.

Notre Dame will be the great patroness of the Gothic cathedrals; La Dame will be the prize and goal of any knightly endeavor related in the innumerable rhymed stories. Both Gothic art and literature subsequently add new elements to the me- dieval heritage that grew out of the Romanesque problems hitherto con- sidered. Further implications in the Gothic period are: This sculpture in- troduces the Gothic world from three angles at once. First, the old theme of the apocalyptic Majestas domini judging the living and the dead or sending the Holy Spirit to strengthen the martyrs-to-be in spreading the Gospel is replaced by the ' fascinating ' theme of the glorification of Our Lady.

Secondly, this glorification has its scriptural root in the prophets at the left , who foretold that the Lord would be born of the Blessed Virgin, and in the kings at the right , who belong to the ancestors of her family; between both groups is the Ark of the Covenant, which prefigures Mary. There is then the double triumph of her resuscitation through Christ after her dormitio on earth and finally, in Heaven, through her Assump- tion and Coronation.

I'he tropologic concept fostered by the theologians filters in ever 'where and can also be found in the Ordo prophetarwn and in the Mystere T Adcnn. In literature, actions are patterned on the actions and gestures of Christ. Ganelon, like Judas ' who did the treason,' betrays. The best example is the rhymed hagiography of a contemporaneous martyr. This martyr; defending the rights of the Church against the king of England, is described in the typical language applied to Christ's life.

Thomas of Canterbury is presented as a new Passion, as, on the stage, the Mystere de la passion itself was grafted upon the prophecies of the Alystere du Vieil Testament. West front of Notre Dame, Paris. Qu'il murreit en eel an, bien le volt afermer. Or n'i out mais de I'an que dous jours a passer.

Ci sui venuz, fait-il, entre vus mort sufrir, Or est venuz li jurs quel covint a cumplir Et sa vie et sa mort I'unt fait mult halt martir. Now, there was not left of the year more than two days to be spent. Now has come the day when it must be fulfilled, And his life and his death have made him a very high martyr. Et antiquum documentum novo cedat ritui St.

Not only on Notre Dame of Paris but almost every- where in northern France, the so-called ' portals of the forerunners ' are typical of this second principle of formal arrangement: This principle can also be found in the narrative art of Cretien de Troyes, the ancestral story in the preface being most visible in CligeSy which is slightly changed in Lancelot and Perceval in order to introduce the two-peaked action. The work on the Notre Dame tympanum is of the highest artistic qual- ity, the direct result of a composition which, though grandiose, appears full of an agreeable ease, as described by Marcel Aubert: This tympanum appears to us as the master work of art of the thirteenth century, due to its grandiose conception, its clear and simple composition, its perfect execution.

The Blessed Virgin has fallen into a very deep sleep, her Son watches her; two angels make preparations to carry her to Para- dise; all around her, the kings, her ancestors, the Prophets who have an- nounced her divine maternity, the Apostles, witnesses of her sorrows and her joys, meditate on this mysterious event. And now the Virgin has en- tered Paradise; she is sitting on the throne of God beside Christ who blesses her, makes her Queen of Angels and of Men, as says the Psalmist; and the Saints of the Old Testament in the concentric circles of the arches greet her with acclamations.

Instead of the Judge, there is the God-Man, dear to the tender love of the Gothic people — the Brother now, far removed from the Majestas domini. Hence the descriptive names of Christ have become indicative of mercy and pity and love: Cil qui en croiz a tort fu mis; li fiz Deu ki en croiz pendirent Jueu; li douz roi de misericorde; le beneit cors nostre Seignur; li glorius creatur ki ne vuelt la mort de pecheur; li roi glorieux Qui aus siens nest pas oublieus. Even if the thematic implications are disregarded, there is still a similar handling of the problems of composition and form in the art of Chretien de Troyes.

All events converge toward this final triumph. Both the sculptor's and Chretien's stories are told in the same way, with gracefulness, rapidity, and ease, without any trace of awkwardness. Dy- namic fluidit ' has replaced hieratic stiffness. The two-pronged action, whether on a human or on a fanciful level, is also a principle in Chretien's art: There is always a steady development of plot. The presentation of Roman- esque snapshots is replaced by an attempt at continuity.

If there is a break, as during the year when Yvain is entangled in his adventures and Laudine and Lunette wait for him in the castle, a subtle link exists between the two theaters of action by Lunette's imprisonment, from which she is lib- erated by Yvain. In the very moment that Lunette reinstates Yvain in the eyes of Laudine, then Yvain's last adventure and his final solemn rehabili- tation are no longer in the relation of contrasts, but in the relation of a gradation. The combination of contrasts and gradation as a Gothic prin- ciple is also visible on the tympanum.

On the panel below, Mary is awak- ened; on the panel above, she is crowned. Mary's awakening implies her final coronation, as Yvain's chivalrous action toward Lunette implies his final reconciliation. The triumphant ending of any Gothic story is always one of decisive values.

If it is not always the coronation of the Virgin, it is at least the find- ing of the Grail, or the discovery of an abducted earthly queen Lancelot , or the enduring happiness of a loving couple. As in the middle panel of the tympanum, there are also in the presenta- tion of adventure groups by Chretien very few protagonists, surrounded by many supernumeraries. Many of the figures provide a lyrical and human touch. On the tympanum this appears in the crossed hands of the second apostle from the right and in the reflective attitudes of the two apostles sitting under trees, their hands supporting their heads — the apostle on the left under an olive tree, the one on the right under an oak.

Two new elements thus make their entrance into medieval art: Again, these same elements of psychology and nature characterize the rhymed novels of Chretien as opposed to the chansons de geste. What a fine psychological detail lies in the fact that Enide, because of her protecting love, always discovers the approaching enemies earlier than her husband. Once, when aware of an imminent danger, she even awakens him with one of her tears dropping on his face.

And if in Chretien there are no longer hero types but distinct personalities — Yvain, Gavain, Perceval, Lancelot — so also on the tympanum each prophet has a different kind of beard and dissimilar folds to his garments; each king holds his scepter in a different way. These are people to be treated as individuals: These details do not mean much so far as realism is concerned, but they serye as an agreeable accompaniment to this new Gothic art.

This is a sign of a sharper historical concept of sacred events, rather than the apocalyptic ap- proach of previous centuries. There is an indirect suggestion of this in the literature also, for authors show a more exact understanding of the tenses and their usage. The past definite becomes the normal, narrative tense in Chretien, although the historical present had been the tense most widely used in Roland.

The historians of art stress the ' charming figures of the blessed in the middle part of the tripartite tympanum, a king, a queen, a Franciscan monk, and others who knock at the door of Paradise where Abraham is expecting them and the beautiful figures of the risen bodies that come naked from the tombs and seem to stretch themselves, proud of their beauty, their strength and their youth.

This speculation is underscored by the number of the risen. Added to these features is the astonishing turmoil caused by the covers of the cas- kets having been thrown into all kinds of positions, but still held in the hands of those sitting in the caskets. Other bodies are standing erect, lying down, getting up, moving about, walking, climbing, praying. Finally, there is the drastic popular concept of devils and Hell, as well as that of Heaven conceived as Abraham's bosom. Fagade of the Cathedral in Bourges. Foto Marburg Judge to the judged ones, from God to man.

The monk Hehnant began at the end of the twelfth centuty to write this idea into his Vers del juisey the verse of judgment, using a particular, new, original strophe and by this fact alone stressing the high importance of the theme for him: This concept, with its many ramifications, does not change until, in the fifteenth century, the accent is again shifted from resurrection and judgment to death itself. As to form, dynamic Gothic art certainly comes of age in the turmoil and movement of these risen bodies. It is not surprising that the contem- porary writers, too, are now capable of depicting the collective turmoil of tournament and battles, and not just an endless succession of single fights, as was the case in the chansons de geste.

The short octosyllabic lines con- tribute their share to the impression of turmoil, as do the condensed groups of figures between the narrow ' caesuras ' of the coflBn covers on the sculp- ture. The following lines describe a tournament in Erec and Enide: D'anbcs dcus parz frcmist li rans, An I'estor lievc li escrois [noise] Des lanees est mout granz li frois: Lances brisent et escus troent, Li haubere faussent et dcsclocnt, Seles vuidcnt, chevalier tument, Li cheval silent et escument.

Sor gaus qui chieent a grant bruit, La traient les espees tuit. Li un eorent por les forz prandre Et li autre por le deffandre. The battle ranks are trembling on both sides, At the attack, the noise sets in, The clashing of the lances is terrible: Lances are broken and shields are pierced Haubercs cut and their meshes opened, Saddles are emptied, knights are killed. The horses are sweating and foaming.

Around those who are falling, there is great noise. There, all are drawing the sword Some are running to attack the fortresses And the others to take the defensive. Ou vergier ot dains et chevriaus; Si ot grant plente d'escuriaus, Qui par ces arbres gravissoient, Conins i avoit qui issoient Toute jor hors de lor tesnieres, E en plus de trente manieres Aloient entr'aus torneiant Sor I'herbe fresche verdeiant. Closest in effect to this resurrection turmoil, however, is a well-rendered but unfortunatelv very short scene found in Partonopeus de Blois, where Urake unexpectedly enters her sister's palace and surprises the maidens, who are described in the following way: Les puceles sont esperies Et comme chievrcs tressalies Le unes ga, les autres la Si com la peors les mena.

At Bourges, an exquisite young lady comes out of her sarcophagus like a Venus Anadyomene coming out of the pool: Likewise in literature, the slightly dressed damsels who spend curious nights of hospitality with the visiting knights, and the erotic dreams of the troubadours yearning for ad- mission to their ladies' dressing rooms betray this sentiment, though a somewhat clumsy sensuality obscures the issue here.

The cult of the fem- inine body of Yseult and of Queen Guenievre, and also of Nicolette, whose white limbs have the capacity to heal miraculously, reveals the aesthetic implications of this first Occidental apotheosis of the body. It is rare, however, to find in literature that sensuality, even though re- fined and sophisticated, embodies a really classical sensibility, which may be conceded to the tympanum of Bourges.

The Roman de Thebes comes closest to such a concept. Its poet describes the splendor coming from the bodies of the Theban women approaching to bury the dead. King Adrastes sees from afar the Theban ladies ' all barefoot and dishevelled ' line In drawing the attention of Capaneus to the ladies, he asks if they be a flock of white sheep or a ' ballet ': Guardez en cos chcmins la sus: Veeir poez une blanchor Onqucs mais hon ne vit greignor. Sont go oeilles, buens amis, Dont si reluist toz cist pais? O son mcschines por baler Que en eel plain vienent joer? You can see something white Never was there seen anything uliitcr.

Are they sheep, good friend. Or are they girls ready for a danee Who eome to play in this plain? Totes nuz piez, esehevelees, [All barefooted and disheveled, En la ehambre vindrent les fees; The fairies entered the room; Car monstrer voleient lor cors For they wanted to show their bodies As chevaliers qui sont de fors To the knights who came from Onques Pallas ne Diana abroad. La lor beaute ne sormonta. Never did Athene or Diana Surpass them in beauty. De I'esgarder ne pot preu faire. Quant plus Tesgarde, plus li plest. Ne piiet muer qu'il ne la best. Tot remire jusqu'a la hanche, Le manton et la gorge blanche.

Flans et costez et bras et mains. He cannot help kissing her. He views her again entirely down to the hip, Chin and the white neck. Flanks and sides and arms and hands. There are among those who knock at the gate of Paradise a Franciscan in deep reflection, a smiling young king, and a graceful young lady holding her mantle closed. This individual shading of the chosen ones and the protecting gesture of the smiling archangel Michael toward an infant in dangerous vicinity of the master devil are classical and belong to all ages.

On the tympanum of Autun, there are visible even surprise, in the figures putting their hands to their chins, and roguishness, in two of the risen who try to find protec- tion at the knees of St.

Michael, while an angel sponsors three others with tender brotherliness. Queen Guenievre en- courages poor Enide to be her friend. She takes her by the hand to intro- duce her to King Artus: L'une a I'autre par la main prise, Si sont devant le roi venues. So her tongue moves without forming sounds: Sovant del dire s'aparoille Si que la langue se remuet, Mes la voiz pas issir n'an puet. Count de Limors, and rides with her on horseback through the moonlit night, fondling her and calling her ' sweet sister,' as the horse jogs through the woods: Et Erec qui sa fame anporte L'acole et beise et reconforte; Antre ses braz contre son cuer L'estraint et dit: Through the night they ride in gentle trot And this means great sweetness to them That the moon gives them her clear light.

Que dirai je fet ele primes? Apclerai je par son nom Ou par ami? Par son nom I'apele! Shall I call him by his name Or call him ' friend '? I call him by his name. He swears that if she does not accept his ring he will give it to his second-best choice and throws it into a well so that at least the reflection of his ladv may have his ring; wherenpon she puts her ring on his finger. In the greatest contrast to these refinements is the representation of Heaven and Hell on the tympanum of Bourges and likewise in the mystery plays of the medieval stage.

Paradise is still symbolically expressed by the ' bosom of Abraham,' who holds on his lap the souls in the form of little children. That this is a Romanesque remnant is indicated by the casa with its Romanesque architecture. It is rather disturbing in this Resurrection picture, but it is reminiscent of the medieval stage where Heaven was al- ways a 'mansion. Through its wide opening appears a medieval torture chamber. Moreover, this type of repre- sentation of Hell is known from the preserved picture of the Valenciennes stage setting for the mystery plays, and from many descriptions in the plays themselves.

If there exists a display of medieval sadism, it certainly is here. The knight with the pilgrims in the Espurgatoire St. Patrice by Marie de France receives his first impression of the devils at the gate of Hell from their noise, grinning, and bestiality: Apres la grant noise et le sun Entrerent tuit en la maisun Od hisdus embruissemenz; Sur lui rechignierent lur denz Desur tute altre creature Esteit horrible lur figure.

Trestuit issi desfigure L'unt par grant eschar saliie 32 [Following the great noise and jingle All of them entered the house With the ugly rumble; The devils showed him their teeth. More than that of any other crea- tures Their face was horrible. All of the greatly disfigured ones Have greeted him with great scorn. Lucifer gives his in- structions to Cerberus for the execution: Pren moy ces trois mauvais larrons. Puis les trainc bas en la cuve et la les me plonge et estuve Tout tens au gibet estendus, les pies encontremont pendu, ent grant brasier et aviv6, ct quand les aras estuve tant qu'ilz tressuent de meshaing Fergalus leur fera ung baing de beau plonc et de beau metal bruyant comme feu infernal.

There is a collection of apparently miscellane- ous scenes: On the other registers there are scenes from the life of Saint Honore: Nonetheless the apostles in the lower register belong intrinsically to the three parts of the story of St. They are his forerunners as bishops; he belongs intimately to them — like them, a pastor gregis through apos- tolic succession and consecrated as such on one of the sculptures.

The Crucifixion at the top is the source and raison d'etre of all the glories and miracles narrated below, particularly of the Mass celebrated by St. Honore and of his personal sanctity as signified by the procession of his relics. This intrinsic uniting of apparently isolated scenes is stressed also in the technique. Actually, the greatest surprise of this tympanum is that all these scenes, isolated in themselves, are arranged in a monumental way in con- formity with the architecture of the cathedral.

All these scenes, consequently, are as isolated and as linked as are the legends of Gautier de Coincy. These legends are isolated as variegated pic- tures and stories, but they are linked by the ever-present spirit of the Virgin, just as the sculptures are linked by the spiritual implications con- cerning St. It is not necessary, howexer, to be dependent on subject matter. I'he Lais of Marie dc France are also isolated, entertaining tales.

But actually thev are, as Leo Spitzcr has shown, a meaningful, great composition around a central problem: Ilonore, thus rcneals a monumental but at the same time a cvclic form. This leads to a final consideration of the Ercc of Chretien. Voretzsch, could see in it only a kind of dramatic mon- umental arrangement in five acts, as stated earlier for the Romanesque composition of Alexius and Roland. More modern scholars, such as Alfred Adler, see things quite differently. I'he new principle of composition, global in kind, leads from love lost and misunderstood at the outset to love reconciled and restored at the end.

Framed bv these fundamental registers. In EreCy the so-called ' Joy of the Court ' is comparable to the role of the relic procession on the tym- panum, because it contains the solution of the love motif from which the adventures started, just as the procession underlines the motif of saintliness in a paramount form as a symbol of canonization, embracing the preced- ing miracles of St.

Honore and his holy life. The complex details of the sculpture have their exact parallels in litera- ture. The groups of apostles presented as discussing and arguing reveal the interest of the schools in disputations that produced endless theo- logical dialogue. In the secular domain and in the world of knights and ladies, the same endless dialogue exists. Only the subject matter is differ- ent. It concerns the subtle questions of love casuistry, as culminating in the Ars amatoria of Andreas Cappellanus.

The discussion as such, with pros and cons, tricks and gestures, talk and countertalk, belongs to the very greatness of narrative literature in twelfth-century France. In court literature, the discussions take place mostly between the knights and their ladies; but there are others, very charming ones, between mothers and daughters who do not want to take just the husband proposed to them, as is the case with Lavinia and her mother in the romance, Eneas. The mother tries to give Lavinia a lesson in love but finds a worthy opponent in Lavinia, who rejects it as far as it concerns the man whom she does not want.

Hence she pretends to need an initiation into love: Nel sai, par fei. I do not know it, honestly. Passing the suffering Grail King, this procession also moves before the eyes of the onlooker: Uns vaslez d'une chambre vint. Qui une blanche lance tint Anpoigniee par le milieu. Atant dui autre vaslet vindrent. Qui chandeliers an lor mains tindrent De fin or, ovrez a neel. An chascun chandelier ardoient Dis chandoiles a tot le mains.

Un graal entre ses deus mains Une dameisele tenoit. Qui avuec les valez venoit. Li graaus, qui aloit devant, De fin or esm6r6 estoit; Pierres precieuses avoit. Then followed two other squires Who held candlesticks in their hands. Of refined gold, worked out with enamel. Upon each of the candlesticks, there were burning Ten candles at least.

A Grail was held between her two hands By a lady Who came, together with the squires. After her came another one Who held a silver plate. The Grail, which preceded her. Was made of refined gold of the best quality; It contained precious stones. Our Lady in this Gothic crea- tion is a ' charming young woman who has preserved from her old royal privilege only as much as is necessary for the pride of a noble race in order to surpass the spirit mundane.

So Enide is presented donning, for her presenta- tion at Arthur's court, the different parts of her court attire that can be seen assembled on the statue, namely: The text from Chretien: Puis vest le bliaut si se? Les deus puceles d'un fil d'or Li ont galone son crin sor. Un cercelet ovre a flors Les puceles el chief li metent. Deus fermailles d'or neelez An une cople anseelez Li mist au col une pucele.

It is with a gold fringe that she makes a simple belt And then she puts on the mantle. The two waiting girls with a golden thread Have put a ribbon on her brown hair. A little crown adorned with flowers Is put on her head by the girls.

Two clasps of enameled gold Worked together as a necklace Were put around her neck by one of the maidens. So tightly she laees and binds Arms and hips that she scarcely can bend. This Oiseuse of the tight-sleeved gown holds a mirror in her white-gloved hands. Her dress is made of a rich green cloth from Ghent and is delicately sewn around with fine yarn stitches: Front reluisant, soreiz voutiz L'entriauz ne fut pas petiz.

Le nes ot bien fait a droiture La bouehe petite et grossete, 6. En sa main tint un miroer. Bien et bel et estroitement, Ot andeus cousues ses manches. Et por garder que ses mains blanches Ne halassent, ot uns blans ganz. Cote ot d'un riche vert de Ganz. Cousue a lignuel tot entor. Her nose was well formed and straight. The mouth small and fresh And she had a dimple in her chin. In her hand she held a looking glass.

Nicely, exactly, and tightly Both of her sleeves were sewn.

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And to prevent her white hands From becoming sunburned, she wore white gloves, A gown she wore of a rich green from Ghent Sewn around with fine yarn stitches. D'une cercle non guaires lee Ouvree a pierres et a flours D'or et d'asur et de coulours Tient les cheveux, ce m'est advis, Qu'il ne lui voisent vers le vis. Mais dessus les a sans destresse.

Trends in Allegory and Caricature Gothic realism in the making is considerably checked by allegory and caricature. The Virtues are isolated, seated figures holding shields decorated with their allegorical emblems. Faith is shown with a chalice and Perseverance with a crown. Hope appears with a banner, Charity with the lost sheep, Chastity with a palm. Prudence with a serpent. Humility with a dove, Docility with an ox, Strength with a lion.

Temperance with a camel. Harmony with an olive branch. The Vices, however, are much more amusingly depicted in scenes of action. Inconstancy is depicted as a monk who leaves his cloister. Idolatry as a man who kneels before an idol. De- spair is a person committing suicide. Avarice someone filling his money box. Luxury is a girl fondled by a young man, Foolishness someone who tries to eat a stone, Pride a person falling from a horse, Wrath someone sitting in an easy chair and pushing back with his foot a kneeling servant.

Fear is a knight who flees from a hare. Drunkenness a woman beating her own bishop. Discord is a fighting couple before a jug turned topsy-turvy. This same method is used in the Roman de la Rose, where even the Virtues are shown in action — and they are very secularized Virtues and be- have in a very free manner. Une autre image i ot assise Coste a coste de Covoitise, Avarice estoit apelee.

Laide estoit e sale et folee. Chose sembloit morte de fain Qui vesquist solcment de pain. Avarice en sa main tenoit. Une borsc qu'clc reponoit [cachait] E la nooit si durcmcnt Qu'el demorast niout longuement Angoist qu'ele en peiist rien traire. The Virtues and Vices in Chartrcs. She was ugly, dirty and stupid. She seemed, as it were, starved, Living only on bread.

Avarice held in her hand. A purse which she hid And knotted so strongly That a long time was needed Before she could take anything out of it. But this did not suit her badly That she had opened her collar And bared her breast. E les tombe, au tour de la roe [And she throws them with the turn Dou somet envers en la boe. Here the Vices, too, are represented in this stifTer way.

In The Seven Deadly Sins and the Seven Virtues of the Chan- tilly Manuscript the stage directions specify that Pride wears a crown and holds a scepter; Wrath holds a sword, Envy a flower and a serpent, Gluttony a piece of cake. This synthesis is caricature, and very clever caricature. All the hidden human passions are portrayed in the glances and gestures of these demons, who are devilish beasts but who are now far removed from the apocalyptic animals. They belong to the same family as the humanized, rascally animals of the Roman de Renard: Geschichte und Kultur des Grand Empire, Leipzig, Salzbourg, ou Klio.

Studien zur Historik, Frankfurt am M. Plus tard, il devint ministre dans le royaume de Westphalie. Gentz parcourut le chemin inverse: Kabinett Berlinischer Karaktere, , p.

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Berlin, Sander, neu hg. Buchholz, in Pallas, , p. Medienunternehmer seit dem Nous nous battons de notre mieux contre notre faillite. On ne sait pas encore si elle va se produire. Ob er ausbleiben wird, steht noch dahin. Die Nacht der Barbaren in welcher wir liegen, wird kaum durch einige Vernunftstrahlen aufgehellt.

Widemann de Vienne en Autriche , Paris, Werken, die ich im J. Band], Leipzig, , p. HA, Nl Albrecht, Nr. Abstract The political changes in the revolutionary and Napoleonic age went hand in hand with changes in the press market, a rising significance of the public sphere and a growing interest in immediate historiography at the interface of political analysis and the historicization of ongoing events.

In this article, these developments are presented through the example of the German states. And finally, the continuities of these European press networks beyond the Napoleonic era in the German reform period are outlined. Keywords Change of the public sphere, European press networks, history of historiography, contemporary history, press politics. Je vous envoie de notre part la photo de la Reine et la mienne. As they inform people, they are supposed to be an essential part of the democratic system.

But the links between the press which is almost totally free after in France and the business and the political elites are ambiguous. It organizes big popular events or campaigns during which it attacks failing business and political elites in the name of the nation. But in reality, this newspaper is very close to certain businessmen and politicians, and is itself many times corrupt.

Histoire culturelle de la France, mai mai , Paris, Seuil, Les ouvriers ne connaissent pas leur bonheur. However, its counter-elites speech does not move away towards populism. The editorial board is made up popular classes, it takes a distant look at the traditional intellectual elites. Keywords Satirical newspapers, France, french political satire, caricatures and cartoons, elites. Beaucoup associent assistance et assistanat. Quel est votre sentiment sur ce point?

Quand il a eu fini, il est parti. Il a eu vite fait. Du chanvre , on en a eu fait. Schaden Gerhard, , p. Le tableau suivant visualise ce constat: Dis-moi, mon fils, veux-tu toujours le nier? Comme nous le montre 18 Cf. Dubois Jean et al. Paris, , ici p. Warum haben Sie ihren Mann denn geheiratet, wenn Sie ihn gar nicht lieben? Damals habe ich ihn doch geliebt gehabt!

Springer Netherlands, , p. Haben Sie dann auch mal ein Kinderfest in der Schule so mitgemacht? In, in den ersten Jahren habe ich das ja mitgemacht gehabt. Na hat mich das erwischt gehabt, 2 hat mich hingehauen. Elles ne veulent pas lui offrir une tribune. Carruthers Janice, , p. The semantic description of their meaning poses huge problems.

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For French, it has already been shown that double Perfects can have functions which exceed the classical temporal and aspectual approaches. On the basis of a number of examples of double Perfects in spoken German, we will try to show that the same interpretation could probably hold true here, too.

Also, das war ganz prima.