Alexandra Kollontai: AUTOBIOGRAPHIE EINER SEXUELL EMANZIPIERTEN KOMMUNISTIN (1926) (German Edition)

She viewed marriage and traditional families as legacies of the oppressive, property-rights-based, egoist past. Under Communism, both men and women would work for, and be supported by, society, not their families. Similarly, their children would be wards of, and reared basically by society. Kollontai admonished men and women to discard their nostalgia for traditional family life. Russian Empire — The Russian Empire was a state that existed from until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires.

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The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in —14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from until , and its German-descended cadet branch, with Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia.

Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state.

Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of , largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War.

Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm.

Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until , when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. In , the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in , a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mids.

Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism—Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe.

Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in , the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. Following Stalins death in , a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities.

In the mids, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup.

On 25 December , Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The majority of Russians inhabit the state of Russia, while notable minorities exist in Ukraine, Kazakhstan. A large Russian diaspora exists all over the world, with numbers in the United States, Germany, Israel. Russians are the most numerous group in Europe. They are predominantly Orthodox Christians by religion, the Russian language is official in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, and also spoken as a secondary language in many former Soviet states.

There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians. The former word refers to ethnic Russians, regardless of what country they live in, under certain circumstances this term may or may not extend to denote members of other Russian-speaking ethnic groups from Russia, or from the former Soviet Union. The latter word refers to all people holding citizenship of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity, translations into other languages often do not distinguish these two groups.

The name of the Russians derives from the Rus people, the name Rus would then have the same origin as the Finnish and Estonian names for Sweden, Ruotsi and Rootsi. The tribes involved included the Krivichs, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches, genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Belarusians and Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians, such Uralic peoples included the Merya and the Muromians.

Outside archaeological remains, little is known about the predecessors to Russians in general prior to AD when the Primary Chronicle starts its records and it is thought that by AD, the Slavs had split linguistically into southern, western, and eastern branches. Later, both Belarusians and South Russians formed on this ethnic linguistic ground, the same Slavic ethnic population also settled the present-day Tver Oblast and the region of Beloozero. On some occasions ethnic Russian communities, such as Lipovans who settled in the Danube delta or Doukhobors in Canada, after the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War starting in , many Russians were forced to leave their homeland fleeing the Bolshevik regime, and millions became refugees.

Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until , the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until , Shetland and Orkney until , Norway has a total area of , square kilometres and a population of 5,, The country shares a long border with Sweden. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms.

By the traditional count from the year , the kingdom has existed continuously for 1, years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product.

On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from to , and then again from to , Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him. For other names, please, see section Name, the Hetmanate was founded by the Hetman of Zaporizhian Host Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Uprising of — The official document, which symbolized union between Russia and Ukraine, however, was never preserved and is thought to be fictional.

The official name of the Cossack Hetmanate was Zaporizhian Host, the historiographic term Hetmanate or Hetman state were coined in the late 19th century. It derives from the word hetman, the title of the general of the Zaporizhian Army, inhabitants of the Cossack Hetmanate referred to it in Ukrainian as Ukraine or Vkraine. The founder of the Hetmanate, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, declared himself as the ruler of the Ruthenian state to the Polish representative Adam Kysil in February and he also called the Hetmanate as Ruthenian state in his letter to the Tsar on February 17, He warned them about his intention to resume his military campaign, however, after obtaining an intelligence report of the superior cossack forces, the Polish troops retreated to Zbarazh to set a defense.

Caught be some degree of surprise John Casimir started negotiations with the Tatars khan, bringing khan on his side they forced Khmelnytsky to start peace negotiations. Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Zboriv in August and was less than the cossack leader has anticipated from his campaign. As ruler of the Hetmanate, Khmelnytsky engaged in state-building across multiple spheres, in the military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. He invested the Zaporozhian Host under the leadership of its hetman with supreme power in the new Ruthenian state, the Hetmanate used Polish currency, and Polish as an administrative language and a language of command.

This is known as the modern Ukrainian language, the treaty also led to the Russo-Polish War of — The period in Hetmanate history, known as the Ruin, which lasted from to , was marked by constant civil wars throughout the state, at the end of Bohdan Khmelnytskys life, his son Yuri Khmelnytsky was elected to be his successor. Higher education — Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education.

Tertiary education at non-degree level is referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in , in the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education, the term higher education was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level.

The latter level of education is referred to as graduate school.

Alexandra Kollontai

Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers. However, the admission of so many students of average ability to higher education inevitably requires a decline in academic standards. There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for such as history, English, philosophy.

In contrast, the higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, in the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates and it may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective.

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Engineering disciplines include, aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial, examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts include Film schools and Art schools, Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level.

Such education combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field. Saint Petersburg — Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in , and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May In , the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in to Leningrad, between and and —, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia.

In , the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in , in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations.

He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May , during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May , closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf , on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in ,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter.

However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in , Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg.

His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life. Moscow — Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center.

Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists.

The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century.

By AD, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. Communism — Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production.

Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece.

Alexandra Kollontai - Wikipedia

At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France.

Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe.

As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in , Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto.

The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers.

Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of — was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia.

The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements. Liberalism — Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberalism first became a political movement during the Age of Enlightenment. Liberalism rejected the social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a philosophical tradition.

Locke argued that man has a natural right to life, liberty and property. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy, prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution, the 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America.

During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state, today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world.

Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means free. One of the first recorded instances of the word occurs in The words early connection with the education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someones generosity or indiscretion, in Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare wrote of a liberal villaine who hath. With the rise of the Enlightenment, the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, being defined as free from narrow prejudice in , in , the first use of the word liberalism appeared in English.

In Spain, the Liberales, the first group to use the label in a political context. From to , during the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was compelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitution, by the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide.

Over time, the meaning of the word began to diverge in different parts of the world. Wiki as never seen before with video and photo galleries, discover something new today. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Alexandra Kollontai Alexandra Kollontai, circa Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon. A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Economic determinism Historical determinism Historical materialism Marx's method Philosophy of nature. Adorno Herbert Marcuse C. Domontovits is probably the commonest alternative spelling see: Genealogy of Mihail Domontovits.

Tsar Alexander II was assassinated two weeks later by less sophisticated means when he changed his ordinary route through the streets, but Mravinskii was arrested when the dynamite tunnel was discovered, charged with misleading the police. Alexandra's mother persuaded her second husband to use his influence to aid her first, and as a result Mravinskii was saved from harsh Siberian exile, stripped of his rights and exiled to European Russia instead.

The New York Times , 4 January Kuznetsov , two others of the signatories of the appeal to the Comintern, however, were expelled from the party [Allen Early dissent , p. Cambridge University Press, p. The article has been reproduced online, albeit with many a copy error, at La Battaille socialiste Website. Professor Fetscher's book presents a collation of both the versions written by Kollontai, the initial draft and the second expurgated one.

The two versions are also collated in the English online edition accessible at Marxists Internet Archive. At the time of the split in the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party between the Mensheviks under Julius Martov and the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin in , Kollontai did not side with either faction at first, and "offered her services to both factions". She went into exile, to Germany, in [18] after publishing "Finland and Socialism", which called on the Finnish people to rise up against oppression within the Russian Empire.

The couple appeared quite oddly assorted: Their romantic relationship came to an end in July , but evolved thereafter into a long-lasting friendship as they wound up sharing many of the same general political views. They were still in contact during early 's when Kollontai lived abroad in a sort of diplomatic exile, and Shliapnikov was going to be executed during Stalinist purges. Kollontai was strongly opposed to the war and very outspoken against it, and in June she broke with the Mensheviks and officially joined the Bolsheviks, "those who most consistently fought social-patriotism".

After leaving Germany Kollontai traveled to Denmark, only to discover that the Danish social democrats also supported the war. The next place where Kollontai tried to speak and write against the war was Sweden. In Sweden the government imprisoned her for her activities. After her release Kollontai traveled to Norway, where she at last found a socialist community that was receptive to her ideas.

Kollontai stayed primarily in Norway until , traveling twice to United States to speak about war and politics [20] and to renew her relationship with her son Mikhail, for whom she had arranged in to avoid conscription by going to the United States to work on Russian orders from U. When Lenin returned to Russia in April , Kollontai was the only major leader of the Petrograd Bolsheviks who immediately voiced her full support for his radical and nonconformist new proposals the so-called " April theses ".

She was a member of the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet , and "for the rest of , [she] was a constant agitator for revolution in Russia as a speaker, leaflet writer and worker on the Bolshevik women's paper Rabotnitsa ". During the revolutionary period, at the age of 45, she married the 28—year—old revolutionary sailor Pavel Dybenko , while keeping her surname from her first marriage. She was the most prominent woman in the Soviet administration and was best known for founding the Zhenotdel or "Women's Department" in This organization worked to improve the conditions of women's lives in the Soviet Union , fighting illiteracy and educating women about the new marriage, education, and work laws put in place by the Revolution.

It was eventually closed in In political life, Kollontai increasingly became an internal critic of the Communist Party [17] and at the end of she sided with the Workers' Opposition , a left-wing faction of the party that had its roots in the trade union milieu and was led by Shlyapnikov and by Sergei Medvedev. Nevertheless, despite subsequent misunderstandings with the former leaders of the Workers' Opposition and Kollontai's own resentment at their having renounced the pamphlet she had written to support the faction, on 5 July she tried again 'to help [them] by speaking on their behalf to the Third Congress of the Comintern '.

In her speech, she bitterly attacked the New Economic Policy proposed by Lenin, warning that it 'threatened to disillusion workers, to strengthen the peasantry and petty bourgeoisie, and to facilitate the rebirth of capitalism'. Kollontai's final political action as an oppositionist within the Communist Party was her co-signing of the so-called "letter of the 22", whereby several former members of the Workers' Opposition and other party members of working class origins appealed to the Communist International against the undemocratic internal practices in use within the Russian party.

When she 'proved recalcitrant, Trotsky forbade her to speak and issued a decree, in the name of the CC , ordering all members of the Russian delegation to "obey the directives of the party". In her defensive speech before the Congress, Kollontai emphasized her loyalty to the party and her devotion to giving the leading role in the party and outside it to the working class, she proclaimed her full observance of the previous year's decree on party unity, and concluded: But even outside the ranks of our party, I will live, work and fight for the Communist party.

From late Kollontai was appointed to various diplomatic positions abroad and was thus prevented from playing any further leading role at home. During late April , she may have been involved in abortive peace negotiations with Hans Thomsen , her German counterpart in Stockholm. Being sent abroad in a sort of de facto exile for over twenty years, Kollontai gave up "her fight for reform and for women, retreating into relative obscurity" [34] and bowing to the new political climate.

She discarded her feminist concerns and "offered no objection to the patriarchal legislation of and the constitution of , which deprived Soviet women of many of the gains they had achieved after the February and October Revolutions ". What can I do about this? One cannot go against the 'apparatus'. For my part, I have put my principles aside in a corner of my conscience and I pursue as best I can the policies they dictate to me". Three years earlier, in , when she was requested to write her own autobiography for a series on famous women by Munich publisher Helga Kern, she deemed it necessary to completely revise the first draft of her work she had handed over to the publisher, by deleting practically all references to 'dangerous' topics, as well as the parts mentioning or just hinting at her former critical positions and those having a personal nature that might be regarded as forms of self-celebration.

On asking the publisher to make the changes requested, Kollontai apologized with obvious embarrassment, inviting repeatedly to debit her all expenses and writing twice that, under current circumstances, it was not absolutely possible "to do otherwise". The degree of her adherence to the prevailing ideas of the Stalinist regime, whether it was spontaneous or not, may be gauged from the opening of an article she wrote in for a Russian magazine.

It bore the title The Soviet Woman — a Full and Equal Citizen of Her Country , and praised the Soviet Union's advances of women's rights, while simultaneously emphasizing a view of the role of women in society at odds with her previous writings on women's liberation. It is a well-known fact that the Soviet Union has achieved exceptional successes in drawing women into the active construction of the state. This generally accepted truth is not disputed even by our enemies.

The Soviet woman is a full and equal citizen of her country. In opening up to women access to every sphere of creative activity, our state has simultaneously ensured all the conditions necessary for her to fulfil her natural obligation — that of being a mother bringing up her children and mistress of her home. Alexandra Kollontai died in Moscow on 9 March , less than a month away from her 80th birthday. She was the only member of the Bolsheviks' Central Committee that had led the October Revolution that managed to survive the Stalinist purges other than Stalin himself.

And, it has been noted, at the time she "was safe in her sumptuous Stockholm residence". It might not have been pure chance if both her only son [l] and her musician half-nephew [m] whom she had much supported at the beginning of his career also came unscathed through the persecution of the Stalinist regime, to the establishment of which she had however significantly contributed. The resurgence of radicalism in the s and the growth of the feminist movement in the s spurred a new interest in the life and writings of Alexandra Kollontai all around the world. A spate of books and pamphlets by and about Kollontai were subsequently published, including full-length biographies by historians Cathy Porter, Beatrice Farnsworth, and Barbara Evans Clements.

A female Soviet diplomat in the s with unconventional views on sexuality, probably inspired by Kollontai, had been played by Greta Garbo in the movie Ninotchka As an unwavering Marxist, Kollontai opposed the ideology of liberal feminism , which she saw as bourgeois. She was a champion of women's liberation, but she firmly believed that it "could take place only as the result of the victory of a new social order and a different economic system", [11] and has thus been regarded as a key figure in Marxist feminism. Kollontai is known for her advocacy of free love.

However, this does not mean that she advocated casual sexual encounters; indeed, she believed that due to the inequality between men and women that persisted under socialism, such encounters would lead to women being exploited, and being left to raise children alone.

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Instead she believed that true socialism could not be achieved without a radical change in attitudes to sexuality, so that it might be freed from the oppressive norms that she saw as a continuation of bourgeois ideas about property. A common myth describes her as a proponent of the "glass of water" theory of sexuality. Kollontai's views on the role of marriage and the family under Communism were arguably more influential on today's society than her advocacy of "free love. She viewed marriage and traditional families as legacies of the oppressive, property-rights-based, egoist past.

Alexandra Kollontai

Under Communism, both men and women would work for, and be supported by, society, not their families. Similarly, their children would be wards of, and reared basically by society. Kollontai admonished men and women to discard their nostalgia for traditional family life. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Saint Petersburg , Russian Empire. Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon. A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Economic determinism Historical materialism Marx's method Philosophy of nature.

Adorno Herbert Marcuse C. Domontovits is probably the commonest alternative spelling see: Genealogy of Mihail Domontovits.

Tsar Alexander II was assassinated two weeks later by less sophisticated means when he changed his ordinary route through the streets, but Mravinskii was arrested when the dynamite tunnel was discovered, charged with misleading the police. Alexandra's mother persuaded her second husband to use his influence to aid her first, and as a result Mravinskii was saved from harsh Siberian exile, stripped of his rights and exiled to European Russia instead. The New York Times , 4 January Kuznetsov , two others of the signatories of the appeal to the Comintern, however, were expelled from the party [Allen Early dissent , p.

Cambridge University Press, p. The article has been reproduced online, albeit with many a copy error, at La Battaille socialiste Website.