Marlboroughs America (The Lewis Walpole Series in Eighteenth-Century Culture and History)

Webb is at his best in describing the tactics and dilemmas of Marlborough's battles. Marlborough was not just brilliant on the battlefield; his diplomatic skills kept the Dutch in line with the alliance as Most users should sign in with their email address. If you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in. To purchase short term access, please sign in to your Oxford Academic account above. Don't already have an Oxford Academic account? Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide.

Sign In or Create an Account. Close mobile search navigation Article navigation. S tephen S aunders W ebb. You do not currently have access to this article. You could not be signed in. Sign In Forgot password? Don't have an account? American Historical Association members Sign in via society site. The Portuguese expel the Jesuits from Brazil, beginning a widespread reaction against the order in Catholic Europe.

Go to Jesuits in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Staffordshire potter Josiah Wedgwood sets up a factory of his own in his home town of Burslem. Frederick the Great suffers his first major defeat, by a Russian and Austrian army at Kunersdorf. Laurence Sterne publishes the first two volumes of Tristram Shandy , beginning with the scene at the hero's conception. Wolfe defeats Montcalm and captures Quebec, but both commanders die in the engagement.

A succession of victories cause to be known in Britain as annus mirabilis , the wonderful year.

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German painter Johann Zoffany moves to England to find work as a painter of conversation pieces and portraits. Go to Zoffany, Johann 13 Mar. Scottish chemist and physicist Joseph Black observes the latent heat in melting ice. Austrian physician Joseph Leopold Auenbrugger describes his new diagnostic technique — percussion, or listening to a patient's chest and tapping. Go to percussion n. John Harrison's fourth chronometer is only five seconds out at the end of a test journey from England to Jamaica. Italian anatomist Giovanni Battista Morgagni publishes De Sedibus , the work that introduces scientific pathology.

Go to pathology in Concise Medical Dictionary 8 ed. George Washington, the future president, inherits Mount Vernon from his half-brother Lawrence. The intensely dramatic music of Gluck's Orfeo ed Eurydice introduces a much needed reform in the conventions of opera. Fingal , supposedly by the medieval poet Ossian, is a forgery in the spirit of the times by James MacPherson.

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In the treaty of Paris France cedes to Britain all its territory north of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi river, except the district of New Orleans. In the treaty of Paris, Spain cedes Florida to Britain, completing British possession of the entire east coast of north America. The Treaty of Hubertusburg, between Prussia and Austria, increases the power of Prussia among the many separate states of Germany. English journalist John Wilkes is arrested for publishing seditious libel in issue no 45 of his weekly magazine The North Briton.

Go to Boswell, James —95 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, leads an uprising of the Indian tribes in an attempt to drive the British east of the Appalachians. Go to Pontiac c. American artist Benjamin West settles in London, where he becomes famous for his large-scale history scenes.

James Watt ponders on the inefficiency of contemporary steam engines and invents the condenser. Britain passes the Sugar Act, levying duty on sugar, wine and textiles imported into America. Joseph Haydn's first published work is six string quartets, a form which he subsequently makes very much his own. Lancashire spinner James Hargreaves conceives the idea of the spinning jenny, with multiple spindles worked from a single wheel.

Go to Hargreaves, James — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. English author Horace Walpole provides an early taste of Gothic thrills in his novel Castle of Otranto. Britain passes the Stamp Act, taxing legal documents and newspapers in the American colonies. Britain repeals the Stamp Act, in a major reversal of policy achieved by resistance in the American colonies.

English chemist Henry Cavendish isolates hydrogen but believes that it is phlogiston. Irish novelist Oliver Goldsmith publishes The Vicar of Wakefield , with a hero who has much to complain about but keeps calm. Pierre le Roy's chronometer, as accurate as Harrison's and cheaper to construct, is set to become the standard model.

Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon complete a four-year survey to establish the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland. The British Chancellor, Charles Townshend, passes a series of acts taxing all glass, lead, paint, paper and tea imported into the American colonies.

A French artist, Jean Baptiste le Prince, discovers the aquatint technique in printmaking. A Society of Gentlemen in Scotland begins publication of the immensely successful Encyclopaedia Britannica. Corsica is sold to France by the republic of Genoa. Go to Corsica in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. A border incident at Balta, in the southern Ukraine, sparks a war between Russia and Turkey that will last six years. Captain Cook observes in Tahiti the transit of Venus, the primary purpose of his voyage to the Pacific. Captain Cook reaches New Zealand and sets off to chart its entire coastline. French inventor Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot successfully tests a steam wagon, probably the first working mechanical vehicle.

The triangular trade, controlled from Liverpool, ships millions of Africans across the Atlantic as slaves. British troops fire into an unruly crowd in Boston, Massachusetts, killing five. Go to Chatterton, Thomas —70 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Captain Cook reaches the mainland of Australia, at a place which he names Botany Bay, and continues up the eastern coast. In response to American protests, the British government removes the Townshend duties on all commodities with the exception of tea.

English entrepreneur Richard Arkwright adds water power to spinning by means of the water frame. Richard Arkwright pioneers the factory environment with his cotton mill at Cromford in Derbyshire. Russia, Prussia and Austria agree a treaty enabling them to divide the spoils in the first partition of Poland. The first partition of Poland begins the process of Lithuania being progressively absorbed into Russia. English prison reformer John Howard is shocked into action by the conditions he sees in Bedford gaol.

The London brokers who meet to do business in Jonathan's coffee house decide to call themselves the Stock Exchange. Go to stock exchange in A Dictionary of Finance and Banking 4 rev ed. Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolates oxygen but does not immediately publish his achievement. Samuel Johnson and James Boswell undertake a journey together to the western islands of Scotland.

Some fifty colonists, disguised as Indians, tip a valuable cargo of tea into Boston harbour as a protest against British tax. Britain's new Coercive or Intolerable Acts include the requirement that Massachusetts citizens give board and lodging to British troops. Illiterate visionary Ann Lee, leader of an English sect, the 'Shaking Quakers', crosses the Atlantic to spread the word. English chemist Joseph Priestley isolates oxygen, but he believes it to be 'dephlogisticated air'.

Delegates from twelve American colonies meet in Philadelphia and agree not to import any goods from Britain. Thomas Gainsborough moves from Bath to set up a studio in London. Dutch nomads, pressing far north from Cape Town, become known as the Trekboers. Go to Afrikaner in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Pioneer Daniel Boone and other backwoodsmen cut the road west that will bring settlers to Kentucky. Go to Boone, Daniel c. Patrick Henry makes a stirring declaration — 'Give me liberty or give me death' — to the Virginia Assembly.

Go to Henry, Patrick —99 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. John Singleton Copley, already established as America's greatest portrait painter, moves to London. Go to Copley, John Singleton ? General Gage sends a detachment of British troops to seize weapons held by American Patriots at Concord. Paul Revere is one of the US riders taking an urgent warning to Concord, but he is captured on the journey. The first shot of the American Revolution is fired in a skirmish between redcoats and militiamen at Lexington, on the road to Concord.

Delegates from the states reassemble in Philadelphia, with hostilities against the British already under way in Massachusetts. Delegates in Philadelphia select George Washington as commander-in-chief of the colonial army. At Bunker Hill, overlooking Boston from the north, the American militiamen prove their worth against British professional soldiers. Britain declares the colonies to be in a state of rebellion, and sets up a naval blockade of the American coastline. Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Yankee Doodle is the most popular song with the patriot troops in the American Revolution.

Figaro makes his first appearance on stage in Beaumarchais' The Barber of Seville. Talleyrand begins an extremely varied career by becoming an abbot at the age of twenty-one. Captain Cook publishes his discovery of a preventive cure against scurvy, in the form of a regular ration of lemon juice. Francisco de Goya begins a series of designs for tapestries to be made in Spain's Royal Tapestry Factory. George Washington raises on Prospect Hill a new American flag, the British red ensign on a ground of thirteen stripes — one for each colony.

18th century

In Common Sense , an anonymous pamphlet, English immigrant Thomas Paine is the first to argue that the American colonies should be independent. Two Boulton and Watt engines are installed, the first of many in the mines and mills of England's developing industrial revolution. The revolutionary convention of Virginia votes for independence from Britain, and instructs its delegates in Philadelphia to propose this motion.

Virginia's motion for independence from Britain is passed at the Continental Congress of the colonies with no opposing vote. Thomas Jefferson's text for the Declaration of Independence is accepted by the Congress in Philadelphia. John Hancock is the first delegate to sign the Declaration of Independence, formally written out on a large sheet of parchment. Scottish economist Adam Smith analyzes the nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations. Go to Smith, Adam —90 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

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George Washington defeats the British at Trenton at a psychologically important moment in the course of the war. Congress adopts a new flag for independent America — the stars and stripes. George Washington, heavily defeated in a battle at Brandywine, is forced to relinquish Philadelphia to the British. The US Congress agrees the final version of the Articles of Confederation, defining the terms on which states join the Union. Go to Articles of Confederation in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. France, joining the American colonies in their fight against Britain, sends a large fleet across the Atlantic.

In Brook Watson and the Shark John Singleton Copley creates the most intensely dramatic of his modern history paintings.

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The British rapidly abandon Philadelphia on news of the expected arrival of a French fleet. The British adopt a new policy in the south, landing in Georgia and capturing much of South Carolina. British explorer Captain James Cook is killed in a skirmish with natives in Hawaii over a stolen boat. Joseph Banks tells a committee of the House of Commons that the east coast of Australia is suitable for the transportation of convicted felons.

The world's first iron bridge is assembled in a few months across the Severn at Coalbrookdale. Samuel Crompton perfects the mule, a machine for spinning that combines the merits of Hargreave's jenny and Arkwright's water frame. Go to Crompton, Samuel — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The year-old Napoleon is admitted as a student in a military college at Brienne, near Troyes. Serapis near England's Flamborough Head.

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Go to Inca noun in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Six days of riot in London are triggered by Lord George Gordon leading a march to oppose any degree of Catholic emancipation. Japanese artist Kitagawa Utamaro is a master of colour woodcuts, often depicting the courtesan district of Edo. Go to Utamaro, Kitagawa — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Maryland, ratifies the Articles of Confederation the last state to do so , completing 'the Confederation of the United States'.

William Herschel discovers Uranus, the first planet to be found by means of a telescope, and names it the Georgian star. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, now 25, leaves Salzburg to settle in Vienna. The Bank of North America is established by the Continental Congress to lend money to the fledgling Revolutionary government. Go to Kant, Immanuel — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Ann Lee leads her Shaker colleagues in a missionary tour of New England lasting two years. The reforming emperor Joseph II emancipates the serfs in the Habsburg territories.

The British general Charles Cornwallis, isolated at Yorktown, is forced to surrender in the final engagement of the Revolutionary War. Italian sculptor Antonio Canova sets up his studio in Rome and begins producing finely modelled nudes in the Greek style. Go to Canova, Antonio — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Friedrich von Schiller's youthful and anarchic play The Robbers causes a sensation when performed in Mannheim.

The English actress Sarah Siddons, already well known in the province, causes a sensation when she appears in London at Drury Lane. Go to Beethoven, Ludwig van — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. French paper manufacturer Joseph Montgolfier sends a hot-air balloon feet m into the air, in front of a crowd in Annonay. US lexicographer Noah Webster publishes a Spelling Book for American children that eventually will sell more than 60 million copies. Ten days after the first human ascent in a hot-air balloon the feat is repeated, again in Paris, in a version lifted by hydrogen. Louis XVI watches through his telescope the first balloon flight with living passengers — a sheep, a cock and a duck.

Jacques-Louis David, establishing a reputation with his severe classical paintings, is elected to the French academy. Go to David, Jacques-Louis 30 Aug. Benjamin Franklin, irritated at needing two pairs of spectacles, commissions from a lens-grinder the first bifocals. English ironmaster Henry Cort patents a process for puddling iron which produces a pure and malleable metal. The first mail coach leaves Bristol for London, introducing a new era of faster transport.

Mozart and his friends perform for Haydn the Mozart quartets inspired by Haydn's 'Russian' quartets op. The French queen Marie Antoinette is wrongly implicated in a scandal involving a diamond necklace. French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb begins publishing his discoveries in the field of electricity and magnetism. James Hutton describes to the Royal Society of Edinburgh his studies of local rocks , launching the era of scientific geology. William Withering's Account of the Foxglove describes the use of digitalis for dropsy, and its possible application to heart disease.

Napoleon graduates from his military college and is commissioned in an artillery regiment. Go to Houdon, Jean-Antoine 25 Mar. Mozart's Marriage of Figaro premieres in Vienna and then has a huge success in Prague. US author Philip Freneau publishes his first collection of poems, dating back to Daniel Shays is the most prominent figure in a violent protest movement by farmers against the government of Massachusetts. French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier publishes a system for classifying and naming chemical substances.

The Continental Congress passes the Northwest Ordinance, a plan for the establishment of new states north and west of the Ohio river. The French finance minister, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, is dismissed when his proposed reforms meet aristocratic opposition. Go to quakers in A Dictionary of British History 1 rev ed. The First Fleet eleven ships carrying about convicts leaves Portsmouth for Australia. A British ship lands a party of freed slaves as the first modern settlers in Sierra Leone, on the west coast of Africa.

Scottish engineer James Watt devises the governor, the first example of industrial automation. Delegates meeting in Philadelphia agree a final draft for a US constitution, to be submitted to the states for ratification. Mozart's opera Don Giovanni has its premiere in Prague.

Arthur Phillip, selecting a suitable coastal site for the first penal colony in Australia, names the place Sydney Cove. The constitution of the United States is ratified by the states, but it is immediately agreed that amendments will be desirable. Tiradentes the 'puller of teeth' leads the first rebellion against Portuguese rule in Brazil.

The ministers of Louis XVI reluctantly announce that the estates general will meet in , for the first time since Spain's affairs are controlled by Manuel de Godoy, lover of the queen, Maria Luisa. Go to pugilist noun in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. Alexander Hamilton becomes secretary of the treasury in the administration of George Washington, whose federalist views he shares.

William Blake publishes Songs of Innocence , a volume of his poems with every page etched and illustrated by himself. In his Principles Jeremy Bentham defines 'utility' as that which enhances pleasure and reduces pain. A left-wing political club begins to meet in a Jacobin convent in Paris, thus becoming known as the Jacobins. The autobiography of Olaudah Equiano, a slave captured as a child in Africa, becomes a best-seller on both sides of the Atlantic. Go to Equiano, Olaudah [Gustavas Vassa] ? Go to Mackenzie, Sir Alexander c. Delegates of the Third Estate swear an oath in a tennis court at Versailles, pledging themselves not to disperse until France has a constitution.

The painter Jacques-Louis David sketches the events in the Versailles tennis court. An excited Paris mob liberates the seven prisoners held in the forbidding fortress of the Bastille. Go to Bastille in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Go to Dunlap, William 19 Feb. Parisians force their way into the palace at Versailles and insist on Louis XVI and his royal family accompanying them back to Paris. French doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin proposes a decapitation machine as a more humane form of capital punishment.

Go to guillotine in A Dictionary of World History 2 ed. Go to Christian, Fletcher c. A second great revivalist movement sweeps northeast America, inspired by the earlier example of Jonathan Edwards. A second fleet arrives in Sydney, bringing more convicts and a regiment, the New South Wales Corps, to keep order. The Potomac is chosen as the navigable river on which the new US capital city will be sited.

Go to Potomac in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed. The USA becomes the first nation to establish a regular census as a systematic check on the size of the population. Go to census in A Dictionary of Public Health 1 ed. Anglo-Irish politician Edmund Burke publishes Reflections on the Revolution in France , a blistering attack on recent events across the Channel.

Go to Burke, Edmund —97 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Turner is only 15 when a painting of his, a watercolour, is first exhibited at the Royal Academy. Scottish poet Robert Burns publishes Tam o' Shanter , in which a drunken farmer has an alarming encounter with witches. French inventor Claude Chappe develops a hilltop signalling system, for which he coins the words telegraph and semaphore. A stranger arrives in Vienna with a mysterious commission for Mozart to write a requiem mass, just months before the composer's death.

Go to requiem in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Stationed at Valence, Napoleon becomes president of the local Jacobin club and makes radical speeches against the nobility and clergy. An Indian raid on an American military camp beside the Maumee river leaves more than US soldiers dead. The Ordnance Survey is founded in Britain, to make detailed maps of the country for military purposes. Naval officer George Vancouver sails from Britain on the voyage which will bring him to the northwest coast of America. Mozart's opera The Magic Flute has its premiere in Vienna in a popular theatre run by the librettist, Emanuel Shikaneder.

Mozart dies, at the age of just 35, leaving his Requiem unfinished. The first ten amendments to the US Constitution, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, are ratified by the states. Go to Bill of Rights in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. France declares war on the Austrian emperor, an event that plunges Europe into more than 20 years of conflict. In a first demonstration of the guillotine, a highwayman is beheaded in a Paris square. Go to guillotine in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

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A French officer, Rouget de Lisle, writes a stirring anthem for France, soon to be known as the Marseillaise. George Washington is unanimously elected for a second term as president of the USA. The Brazilian rebel Tiradentes is beheaded in public in Rio de Janeiro as a warning to would-be revolutionaries.

Charlotte Square in Edinburgh begins to be built to the design of Robert Adam. Go to Adam, Robert —92 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Thomas Paine moves hurriedly to France, to escape a charge of treason in England for opinions expressed in his Rights of Man. A French revolutionary army defeats the Austrians and Prussians at Valmy, and thus saves Paris from attack. After their success at Valmy, French republican armies overrun much of the Austrian Netherlands. During four September days, thugs are encouraged to massacre some aristocrats and priests held in Paris prisons.

Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific coast of Canada, becoming the first known person to cross the north American continent. The National Convention abolishes royalty in France and establishes the first republic. Beethoven leaves Bonn and goes to Vienna to study composition with Haydn. Louis XVI is guillotined after a majority of just one in the national Convention has voted for death without delay.

Britain joins other European nations in war against France, mainly in naval engagements in the West Indies and Atlantic. Russia and Prussia agree on a second partition of Poland. Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, enormously speeding up the process of separating cotton fibres from the seeds. Go to cotton gin in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

George Washington lays the cornerstone for the Congress building on Capitol Hill. France becomes the first nation to attempt national conscription, calling up bachelors between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five. The US Congress passes Fugitive Slave Laws, enabling southern slave owners to reclaim escaped slaves in northern states.

The French Convention adopts imaginative names for the months in their new republican calendar. The Terror begins in republican France, with executions rising to more than in December. Go to Paine, Thomas — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Napoleon's soldiers capture Toulon and his artillery fire forces the Anglo-Spanish fleet to withdraw from the harbour. Go to Napoleon I — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

Robespierre and St Just succeed in sending Danton and his faction to the guillotine in April. Goethe and Schiller become friends, and together create the movement known as Weimar classicism. Robespierre and his faction go to the guillotine in July, in the final bloodletting of the Terror. George Washington uses military force to assert government authority on rebels in Pennsylvania refusing to pay a federal tax on whisky. Virtuoso violinist Nicolo Paganini gives his first public performances, in churches in his native Genoa. Dutch Boers begin calling themselves Afrikaners, to emphasize that Africa is their native land.

Beethoven makes his first public appearance in Vienna as a pianist, playing either his first or second piano concerto. Mungo Park sets off on his first expedition to explore the Niger on behalf of the African Association. Go to Park, Mungo — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Two extra stars are added to the American flag for Vermont and Kentucky, two new states that have joined since the original union of thirteen. The Netherlands, forced by invasion into the French camp, is transformed into the Batavian republic.

Thomas Paine publishes his completed Age of Reason , an attack on conventional Christianity. After the Fort Greenville concessions, the Shawnee leader Tecumseh emerges as a champion of Indian territorial rights. Go to Tecumseh c. A secret Protestant group, the Orange Society, is formed in Co. Armagh to resist Irish nationalism. The year-old Napoleon Bonaparte comes to public attention for his part in saving the Convention in Paris from an assault by rebels. Go to Cape Colony in Encyclopedia of Africa 1 ed.

Poland's neighbours — Russia, Prussia and Austria — are all on hand for the final partition of the kingdom. Napoleon marries Josephine de Beauharnais, widow of Alexandre de Beauharnais, guillotined in After two rapid victories in north Italy, Napoleon marches on Turin and the king of Sardinia asks for an armistice. In Berkeley, Gloucestershire, Edward Jenner inoculates a boy with cowpox in the pioneering case of vaccination.

Go to Jenner, Edward — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Napoleon Bonaparte takes command of the French army of Italy, with astonishingly successful results. French astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace publishes his nebular hypothesis, arguing that the planets formed from a mass of incandescent gas. George Washington selects the Cherokee Indians for an experiment in adaptation to 'civilization'. George Washington, resisting pressure for him to accept a third presidential term, delivers a farewell address to guide the nation's future.

Napoleon creates in northern Italy the Cisalpine Republic, formed from occupied territores including the papal states of Bologna and Ferrara. Go to Adams, John — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Irish nationalist Wolfe Tone sails from France to invade Ireland with a force of 14, French soldiers. German physician Samuel Hahnemann coins the term 'homeopathy' and describes this new approach to medicine.

Napoleon marches against Vienna and is only two days from the city when the emperor requests an armistice. In Venice Napoleon deposes the last of the doges and sets up a provisional democracy. Samuel Taylor Coleridge says that while writing Kubla Khan he is interrupted by 'a person on business from Porlock'. Napoleon, with distinguished scientists in his fleet, sails to invade Egypt. British explorer George Bass sails round Tasmania in an open whaleboat, discovering the strait which now bears his name.

Austrian author Alois Senefelder, experimenting with grease and water on stone, discovers the principles of lithography. Go to lithography in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt begins well with the Battle of the Pyramids, a victory over an Egyptian army. Irish nationalist Wolfe Tone, convicted of treason for his failed invasion, cuts his throat to cheat the British gallows. The British acquire a foothold in the Persian Gulf by making Oman a protectorate. Go to Oman in Oxford Dictionary of English 3 ed.

Controversial Alien and Sedition Acts are passed by the US Congress as emergency measures in response to the perceived threat of war with France. English poets Wordsworth and Coleridge jointly publish Lyrical Ballads , a milestone in the Romantic movement. Napoleon's soldiers discover a black basalt slab, the Rosetta Stone, near the village of Rashid in Egypt. Go to Rosetta stone in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.

Napoleon leads a costly, unsuccessful and plague-ridden expedition against the Turkish garrisons in Syria. Haydn's oratorio The Creation has its first public performance in Vienna, in the Burgtheater. Napoleon, in Syria, orders captured defenders of Jaffa to be killed by bayonet or drowning to save ammunition. In a famous moment of calculated courage Napoleon visits and touches the sick in a plague hospital in Jaffa.

A Sikh maharajah, Ranjit Singh, captures Lahore and makes it his capital in his campaign to unify the Punjab. English surveyor William Smith compiles a manuscript, Order of the Strata , revealing chronology through fossils in rocks.

Go to income tax in A Dictionary of British History 1 rev ed. The British parliament passes a Combination Act, classing any association of labourers as a criminal conspiracy. Go to Combination Acts in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore, is killed fighting the British at Seringapatam. Go to Tipu Sultan c. Napoleon abandons his army in Egypt and returns hastily to Paris at a time of great political opportunity.

Napoleon contrives a military coup that ends the Directory and gives him sweeping powers as First Consul. Italian physicist Alessandro Volta describes to the Royal Society in London how his 'pile' of discs can produce electric current. Toussaint L'Ouverture emerges as the leader of Saint-Domingue, ruling without French colonial control. US president John Adams moves into the newly completed White House, named for its light grey limestone. Go to White House in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Welsh industrialist Robert Owen takes charge of a mill at New Lanark and develops it as an experiment in paternalistic socialism.

Beethoven seeks medical advice for a very alarming condition, an increasing deafness. Napoleon takes a French army through the Alps before the snows have cleared, and defeats the Austrians at Marengo. Go to Burr, Aaron — in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single entry from a reference work in OR for personal use for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice.

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