More Than 100 Tools for Developing Literacy

Writing Strategies for All Primary Students. Teaching English as a Foreign Language. I Don't Get It. Adult Learning Principles 3: Advanced Adult Learning Principles. Differentiated Instruction Using Technology. Psychology of the Digital Age. Common Core Literacy Lesson Plans. Teaching Reading in the Middle School. Making Differentiation a Habit.

Assistive Technology for Education. Teaching Students to Dig Deeper. Teaching Writing in the Middle School. Visual Impact, Visual Teaching. Your Literacy Standards Companion, Grades Mommy, Teach Me to Read: Study Strategies for Accelerated Learners. Grade Transformer for the Modern Student: Upper High School Edition. Defining Understanding and Supporting Games Education. Classroom Instruction from A to Z.

Critical Thinking and Formative Assessments. Budding Reader Book Set 4: From Good to Great. The Great Reading Disaster. Learning Technologies and the Body. Writing Strategies for the Common Core. Animation, Embodiment, and Digital Media. Integrating Literacy and Technology. Standards for the 21st-Century Learner in Action. Textual Analysis with advice on Creative Writing.

Shaping the Future with Math, Science, and Technology. Learning to Write with Purpose. The Book of Reading and Writing. Lesson Design for Differentiated Instruction, Grades Writing Instruction for Generation 2. How to Teach Poetry Writing: Workshops for Ages Reader Response in Secondary and College Classrooms. Share the new titles in class, discussing the reasons behind these choices.

Use questions such as the following to help students reflect on their decisions. Why do you think this is true? Two of these key elements are individual interest and the prior knowledge that drive a specific audience to a particular work of fiction or nonfiction.

Understanding why students read what they read can be helpful in guiding them toward reading selections that will both challenge and interest them. Activity Clip copies of fictional short stories and nonfiction articles from ageappropriate magazines or copy them from Internet Web sites. Next, make several index cards bearing only the title of each story and article.

Bring the stories and articles to class and share the cards with the students. Ask them to select the title they would most like to read, giving three reasons for their choice and a one-sentence answer regarding what they expect to find in the story or article. You may also ask them to select one title that they would prefer not to read at all, along with a brief explanation of why they feel the way that they do. Then, distribute the stories or articles to the students to read alone or in small groups.

After all students have completed their selections, ask them to rank the story or article on a scale of 1—5 based on how well it lived up to their prereading expectations. If the story or article failed to deliver on their expectations, ask them to explain why they were disappointed and how this disappointment would affect their future choices. Finally, ask students to rename the story or article based on their individual reading experience and discuss the reasons behind their new titles.

Use questions such as the following to help students formulate their responses. The title offers a quick, inviting glance into what the text contains. Students can be taught to mine this gold nugget of information to learn more about what is coming in the pages ahead. Activity Before students begin to read a nonfiction text, ask them to convert chapter titles or headings found within chapters into questions. Depending on the length of the book and the grade level, focus on a specific chapter or an entire section of a book. For example, a book on mammals might contain the following chapters: Under what conditions can mammals live and thrive?

What is the natural prey of mammals? What makes mammals different from other species? How can mammals continue to survive on this planet? Instruct students to read the assigned chapter s independently or in small groups, reminding them to keep the title question in mind as they read the material. After the reading is completed, in a small or large group, discuss possible answers to the title question. Less experienced readers may benefit from a more structured and guided activity in which the students receive assistance developing the questions beforehand and locating the answers within the material.

If this approach is necessary, model this technique one or two times, each time placing more responsibility on the students to generate their own questions and locate answers themselves. If a teacher is able to identify a connection between a specific topic and the students preparing to study it, chances are greater that the students will make an effort to understand what they are about to read. Activity Early in the school year during the first two weeks , distribute five to seven index cards to each student.

Instruct students to write down questions or issues that concern them one question or concern per index card as they move closer to being an active participant in our society. Depending on which method works best for the class population, this activity can be completed independently or in small groups. If you feel anonymity may encourage students to be more reflective, allow them to complete the cards independently and submit them anonymously. Collect the cards, sort them by topic and store them for future use. When a new unit of study is about to be introduced, return to the index card file.

Which questions in the file relate to the unit topic? For example, if students are concerned that they will not be able to find a good job after graduation, use that question to stimulate a discussion prior to dealing with a unit on economics or career choices. If more than one question is relevant to a unit of study, include those questions in subsequent discussions to further stimulate student interest.

Because the cards represent a glimpse of which questions or issues genuinely concern the students in your class, using them to introduce a unit of study will likely increase the chances that they will be more active participants in any related discussions and activities. The box should be tamperproof, and emptied periodically so it can be added it to the cards from the beginning of the year. Helping students to see a life connection to what they are learning in class is a solid first step in establishing a purpose for reading the material.

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Their location at the end of the chapter offers these insights after students have read the material. Reading these review questions before reading the actual material helps students determine their purpose for reading, since the important concepts are often incorporated in the questions. Activity Before reading a section or chapter in a nonfiction textbook, ask students, working alone or in pairs, to turn to the end of the section to read the review questions. Instruct them to note, as they read, which part of the text contains the answers to the questions.

Which answers were found at the beginning? Many authors place the most vital information in the first few lines or paragraphs. Were more answers found near the conclusion of the passage? Some authors provide a summary statement to restate the most essential facts as an aid to readers. Focus on some of the questions below to guide the discussion. If students are experiencing difficulty answering the review questions, break the questions down, focusing on key words and phrases in each question. Are students clear on the meaning of these terms? If not, work with students to identify the key term in each review question, then determine its meaning and its relationship to the concept presented in the text.

In the event that no review questions are available in either the student or teacher texts, compose some questions beforehand for the students to use as they read. Instead, a significant percentage of their exposure to these topics comes from television and the Internet. This can lead to misinterpretation or manipulation of facts. Even though television and the Internet remain important sources for acquiring information, particularly evolving events, it may be necessary to do some background reading to understand the reality of a situation. Activity Select a current story on the local, national, or international news arena.

The age or grade level of the student population should guide the selection of the topic. This assignment may be completed by assigning a single topic to the entire class or by presenting the group with a variety of topics from which they may choose one. While there are always breaking news stories, many topics, such as global warming and upcoming elections, are reliable news staples.

Take this fact into consideration when composing a topic list. Using a separate sheet of paper or a specified ink color , instruct students to write down what they already know about the topic. Then, assign them to look to television or the Internet to see or hear more about the topic using a second sheet of paper or ink color to make notes about what they subsequently see or hear about the topic. Finally, instruct students to find and read magazine articles about the same topic. The school or public library is often a good source for periodicals.

After the reading assignment is completed, ask students to write five to seven statements, using a third sheet of paper or ink color , that: At the conclusion of this Groeber Why do you feel that way? One way to do this is to become acquainted with the person behind the print, that is, introduce students to the author. This approach is particularly helpful in prereading fictional works as students begin to show a marked preference for certain authors or genres.

The Internet is a great resource for learning more about the people who write the books that students read and, while not every author enjoys the immediate recognition factor of J. Seuss, becoming acquainted with the storyteller can be helpful in predicting the kind of story that person might write or how their characters might react in a variety of situations. For example, Rowling has been candid about her humble beginnings. The same description could apply to her hero, Harry Potter. Getting to know the author this way can personalize the reading experience for students.

Activity While not all works of fiction are thinly veiled autobiographical accounts, many authors admit that they have infused their characters with some part of their own personality—whether it is a love of certain places, a secret goal, or a nervous tic that surfaces at the most inopportune times, making them or their character the object of ridicule.

Learning this type of information about the author makes the storyteller real for readers. It also gives students an opportunity to make predictions about what the story character might say or do in certain situations. Prior to reading a book or series of books by an author, instruct students to use library resources i. After students have gathered the information, use some of the questions below to guide Groeber Why do you feel this is true? In addition to the informal discussion, many teachers may want to take this activity to the next level, such as having the students do some role playing as the author.

Their knowledge and expertise in these areas enable them to use such thought processes as assimilation the comparison or two or more ideas focusing on similarities and accommodation the comparison of two or more ideas focusing on differences to manipulate the newly acquired information. This mining of prior knowledge is a key factor in understanding unfamiliar and more complex material. Students gather their prior knowledge from a variety of sources, including word of mouth from friends or relatives. In order to test the validity of prior knowledge, it is a good idea to encourage students to compare what they know firsthand actual personal experience with what they have heard, seen, or watched.

If one source is consistently in stark contrast with information acquired from other sources, that source cannot be considered as credible or reliable. It does not mean that the information is or will always be incorrect, but students must learn to receive information from that source with the past inconsistencies in mind. Activity Initiate a class discussion about an upcoming unit of study by asking students to reflect and share information they have already acquired on that topic, noting the source of the information. Keep in mind that the Internet, once considered by many people to be an up-to-date and definitive source for all types of information, has undergone a number of changes since its inception.

The development and growth of weblogs and wikis, for instance, enable people to go online and randomly make changes to the unprotected content of another author. This exercise not only helps students to become more adept at using resource materials, but it also provides an opportunity to stimulate Groeber In pairs or triads, begin by asking students to embark on a scavenger hunt for information on the upcoming topic.

Challenge the teams to find at least five facts related to the topic. In order for the facts to count as valid, the teams must be able to confirm them with two other sources. For example, if students find a Web site insisting that less than 40 percent of the American voting population belongs to a major political party, they cannot enter that information as a fact until they find evidence to prove it in two other places, either online or in a book or article.

Next, before beginning to read about the topic, gather these verified facts, posting them on a bulletin board arranged by their relation to one another. As the students move on to read about the topic, return to the bulletin board periodically to add more facts, linking them to related information already on the board. The facts can then be written on index cards for easy manipulation throughout the duration of the unit of study.

In most cases, the title of a passage provides the primary purpose, or reason, to continue reading. For example, if a student hopes to grow up and be a marine biologist, it is important for that student to understand that a working knowledge of how ocean currents behave will be critical to success in that career. Activity Before students read an expository passage, instruct them to look over the title, section headings, and other text divisions in order to develop two to four questions that they would like to have answered as they read.

This exercise is not limited to current event topics. For instance, middle school students preparing to study a unit on simple machines can be challenged to seek answers about how the presence or absence of one or more simple machines could have a drastic effect of their daily lives. Students or teachers should never regard the pursuit of knowledge as an aimless wandering journey through a stack of textbooks, but rather a search for information that will serve its seekers now and in the future.

The words of a poem act as a great sensory stimulation when listeners can see and hear them at the same time, thus inviting a more vivid mental image of the ideas being presented. Poetry also provides a valuable opportunity to show students how to collect information using all five of their senses. Because students react more actively to familiar sensory input, begin by looking for poetry that contains this type of experience.

For example, poems about sticky summer nights or cool spring breezes are sensory feasts that many readers know and appreciate. Sharing a poem with less familiar stimulus can also be effective, yet requires a bit of preparation. For instance, you can share the taste of an exotic food after checking student records for food allergies or the unusual sound of a musical instrument with students.

As you read, encourage students to close their eyes and allow the poem to wash over them as they think about the words and the images they conjure. At the same time, use various vocal tones to further stimulate student imaginations. For example, raise the volume of your voice to read a passage about a chaotic thunderstorm, slipping into almost a whisper for the calm directly before or after a cloudburst. After the reading, discuss, in small or large groups, how the words and phrases in the Groeber Use the questions listed below to guide the discussions. Try to recreate them aloud now.

In some cases, these feelings are acting simultaneously to prevent the characters from moving forward toward their goals. For example, in settling a debt of honor over the death of his friend, Romeo Montague unleashes a blind rage toward the cousin of his true love, Juliet Capulet. The process of prediction is a measure of how familiar readers are with the manner in which stories unfold, and how well readers are able to use what they know about the story characters and their own experiences to predict the next major story event.

Guided reading exercises can be conducted independently using preprinted questions that readers consult before continuing with a story, and can also involve small groups where a designated leader poses questions to be discussed at various plot points. The key to developing an effective guided reading exercise lies in keeping the questions openended.

This fosters further discussion, enables readers to reflect on what has occurred in the story, and think about what impact those events will have on the climax and conclusion. Activity Before students begin reading a story, conduct a small or large group discussion noting the story title, plot synopsis, and cover art. Use these elements to get students thinking about what is about to happen, and assign a number of pages or chapters to be read independently.

When all readers complete those pages, reunite as a group to discuss what has Groeber Use some of the questions listed below to guide the discussion. Continue to assign portions of the entire story or book for students to read, pausing at specific intervals to reflect on what has happened and what is yet to come. Near the end of the final discussion, instruct students to jot down the passage that prompted their realization that the main character would or would not attain the identified goal.

From that point, readers must begin to construct meaning. These clues include chapter titles, section headings, photos and illustrations, charts, graphs, and sidebars. Prereading activities in which students take the time to investigate these clues can be conducted individually, with pairs, or small groups. Responses can be verbal, or written with individual students or designated group recorders listing their findings.

The primary purpose of this type of activity is to alert readers to the cues they can examine before reading that will help identify and focus their purpose for reading. For example, titles and headings are an organizational tool provided by the author s and can be used by readers to evoke their prior knowledge of a topic. Activity Before beginning a new chapter or unit of study, have students participate in a preview session to prepare them for the less familiar information. One way to conduct this activity is with a worksheet that poses such questions as the ones listed below.

The activity can also be conducted verbally with students working in small groups to share ideas with one another. Decisions about which format to use can be made based on the student population, or can be varied by content of the upcoming unit of study. Questions that ask the student to relate the new information to what they already know are the most effective in promoting a purpose for Groeber The questions listed below are a random sample and can be modified to suit various topics and specific student populations.

Based on these items, what type of information do you think the chapter will contain? How are they alike? How are they different from one another? Then, write down one sentence stating what you think the word means. While you read, check your definition against the one found in the text. How close is your definition to the one supplied by the book? In this exercise, students write down a topic and then write down as many words or ideas as possible that relate to that topic.

In most instances, it is not necessary to assign a formal grade for this practice of teaching students to cull their memories for past information on a topic. It is sufficient to instead monitor the impact this activity has on the result, such as greater comprehension of a reading passage or a well-developed written composition. Activity Begin a small or large group reading session by drawing a circle on the board and writing the topic inside that circle. Ask students to share aloud what they already know about the subject.

Copy every response words or short phrases offered since doing otherwise might discourage students from participating in the exercise. Continue until one side of the writing space on the board is filled. Then ask students to examine the words and phrases on the board to determine if any connection exists between them. Could the words be placed in categories based on their relationship to one another?

Write the category on an unused portion of the board, and list words and phrases from the word web that would fit properly into that category, crossing them off the word web as they are recopied. Once all the words are diagramed, ask students to think of other new words they could place under that category.

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Repeat these two steps until all or most of the words from the word web have been assigned to a category. The ability to link words to one another based on relationship requires students to have some idea of the Groeber Therefore, this is a solid first step toward recognizing and comprehending those words when they appear in the written passage.

Remind students as they begin reading to watch the passage for some of the words and phrases from their lists. As students read, challenge them to add at least one more word or phrase to each category. For an added challenge, ask students to name an additional category and list three to five new words or phrases under the new category.

For evaluation purposes, allow students to complete the first portion of the activity in a small or large group, while completing the two challenges independently as a written assignment at the conclusion of the exercise. This process, while straightforward, can be daunting as readers attempt to soak up all the information regardless of how major or minor a fact might be in relation to the primary topic. To counter this, previewing texts prior to reading not only allows students to work with manageable chunks of information, it also accommodates those alternate style learners who understand more clearly when they can examine a work in its component parts.

Students can complete the following previewing activity independently or in small or large groups. For evaluation purposes, an independent or small group format might be preferable. In the case of large group or whole class formats, the teacher can record the responses so that students can read and copy optional them. Activity Begin with the title and topic of the text, and ask students to compare the two pieces of information. What words in the title help identify it as related to science, social studies, or some other type of text?

What expectations might a reader have after reading the title? Do they offer a clearer picture of the subject? Read the introduction aloud or silently, as appropriate for the student population. Have students, in their own words, tell what they think the author intends to talk about in this book and explain what clues they used to reach that decision. For evaluation purposes, students can write their names and responses on index cards that can be shared anonymously with the rest of the class to stimulate further discussion.

Next, ask students to locate and examine any chart, graph, or map in the book. Randomly select students to tell at last two facts they learned from each of these special texts feature. Largely ignored by many readers, these features contain a wealth of information about the topic. Glancing through the index at the back of the book, next instruct students to list three to six words that they recognize. Ask them to write Groeber Keep track of student responses to these exercises and refer to them as students begin reading the text.

Ask them what they learned during the previewing exercise that helped prepare them for this material. Compare this activity to other situations when people have an opportunity to preview something before the actual experience takes place cinematic coming attractions, illustrated restaurant menus.

How do such situations prepare us for related actual experience? In addition to differences in reading levels, many students have the additional challenge of learning English as a second language. These students have a different set of cultural experiences and might also encounter difficulty with the use of American slang and idioms.

While many activities involving prior knowledge are conducted with small or large groups to set the tone and direction for depth of study of a particular topic, it is important, on occasion, to determine what each individual student currently understands about a subject. Such evaluations are critical in order for teachers to provide suitable reading material and other media for use during a unit of study.

Avoid deleting key vocabulary terms that are unfamiliar to most students. Distribute copies of the altered passage to the entire class, instructing them to fill in whatever word s they think will make sense in each of the blank spaces. Collect and review the completed papers, noting any areas with a high rate of incorrect response as this may indicate a general lack of understanding shared by the entire class, a situation that could exist for a variety of reasons. Use the cloze activity information to place students in groups for class activities and for lesson planning, focusing on those areas where student knowledge is weakest.

Enrichment activities can then be built around areas where student experience and interest are greatest. A variation of the cloze procedure can be created by replacing the blank space with one correct word choice and two incorrect options, instructing students to choose the word they feel fits into the space. The most effective fiction manages to construct a solid connection between its characters and the audience, with multidimensional characters at the heart of any good story. Even the most elaborate plot line and lavish story setting may prove incapable of finding an audience if these individuals are not present.

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Rowling has done a remarkable job of creating an intricately detailed fantasy world, it is clearly the young wizards residing there who have captured the hearts of young and young-at-heart readers around the globe. And, to understand and accept Harry is to learn more about ourselves. In the classroom, exercises that build on this relationship between readers and characters provide a solid foundation for introduction of other story elements, such as plot, setting, and theme.

Once readers establish a reason to care about a character, they are willing to invest some time and emotion in a shared journey. As readers move forward to explore new works of fiction, they can use what they have learned about plot and character development from previous stories to predict how a new plot will unfold and how characters will respond to the obstacles and challenges they face. Activities that promote this type of prediction foster a greater understanding of what is involved in storytelling. The greater control children have over story selection, then, the more likely they are to look forward to reading time.

This way, summer reading can move from a burden to a wonderful retreat from sweltering temperatures or rainy days. The wise educator prepares a comprehensive list from which students may choose a certain number of titles to read over the summer vacation. Few people approach the buffet with this attitude and come away feeling satisfied. The activities in this chapter are suitable for independent reading and small group discussion.

The latter is essential in helping students develop criteria for making future selections. Young children listening to bedtime stories from their parents are so eager for a visualization of the characters and events that while the parent relates the tale from memory, children often interrupt with requests of more detailed descriptions of what the princess looks like or how tall the castle stands.

For beginning readers, illustrations offer key insights into understanding what the written text contains. For more experienced readers, appropriate illustrations go a long way in enhancing the sensory experience as these children equate the images they see with their own prior knowledge of the world and world of literature. For all readers, illustrations can often add a rich dimension to a good story, breathing depth and excitement into just about any tale. Activity Allow students to each select their favorite picture book, and to look carefully at the illustrations in the story.

Then, on paper or as part of a class discussion, ask them to list at least eight details provided in the pictures that are not available in the text. During this exercise, challenge students to think beyond the visual imagery the illustrations offer to include other sensory input. For example, if an illustration of a moonlit night shows a wise owl perched in a high tree, encourage students to mimic the sound an owl might make in the story.

Building on the visual details and sensory cues above, an additional questioning session can further explore the connection that exists between words and illustrations in a picture book. Cover the words in any picture book and instruct students to try to tell as much as they can Groeber Use questions like the ones listed below to guide the discussion.

How much would the story change if one of those things changed? The story might take place in daylight rather than night, or on a country road rather than a busy city street. Can you think of a time that you felt like making the same kind of expression sad, happy, angry as the main character? Does the incident seem similar or different from the moment in your life? As readers become acquainted with these story characters, they can imagine how it might be to have these people as friends or, in the case of strong antagonists, enemies. Putting a character into the context of the real world requires readers to use information from the story to predict how a character might act or feel about a variety of situations.

For example, if a character displays indecisive behaviors, it is easy to imagine that person entering a grocery store and spending several minutes trying to decide which brand of cereal to purchase or deliberating about which checkout line might be fastest. Activity This activity works well with students studying the political party and election system of our country and can be used effectively alongside a social studies unit on those topics.

Small or large groups may be reading the same work of fiction, or individual students can make independent selections. In either case, students will be asked to mine character information in the story to make certain predictions about the political preferences of a story character. Begin this exercise with a discussion about the major political parties in our country.

The depth on this topic depends on the age or ability level of the student population and how comprehensive of a study of political parties is intended. After the discussion, instruct students, in small groups, to compile a list of the ideologies of each of the political parties. Then share the compiled lists in a whole class activity and develop a consensus of opinion. Use passages from the text to substantiate the Groeber Finally, imagine that the story character is running for political office, and students must write or deliver a speech three to five minutes in the voice of the story character.

For assessment purposes, students should be judged more on the content of the speech rather than the delivery. Since books are not ordinarily an auditory medium except in the case of audio books , these emotive phrases suggest to the reader the tone, speed, and inflection that the speaker uses. Readers can compare this information with what they know about real-life speech patterns and make decisions about which emotions the characters are experiencing throughout the story. Likewise, consistent use of words related to a speedy response might label a character as impulsive. Activity Have students select a character other than the main story character and jot down five phrases that describe how he or she speaks.

Are the words delivered in a hasty or halting manner? With each conclusion, instruct students to provide excerpts from the passages to substantiate their choices. The questions listed below can then be used to discuss the outcome of this activity. Why do you say that? Help this character select a suitable career. In your opinion, who would make a good friend for this character? Why do you think so? This realization may be enough to help the character appreciate her unique appearance. Appearance is also important in helping readers determine if certain plot devices are plausible.

Character traits can also be modeled, as with a slightly built teenager struggling with, and possibly overcoming, a larger foe in order to stand up for someone or something that is dear to him. Completing assignments of this nature is less difficult when the story has not been retold in a visual medium.

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Activity Instruct students to create a visual image of one of the characters in a story that they are currently reading. With this visual image in mind, instruct students working independently to provide written responses to some of the questions listed below. Why did you choose those features? Finally, have students write a letter to the character, offering empathy or advice about how the character perceives his or her appearance.

As a class, share the letters to stimulate a group discussion about the role physical appearance plays in our lives. In some instances, a character is introduced in an almost idyllic setting only to be abruptly displaced. The middle of the story can find characters struggling to return to that place, and in the end, realize their dreams or realize that their own peace of mind, rather than the peaceful locale, will give them true happiness.

Some story settings share a place of prominence with the characters. For readers, there may be some question about whether the tale might have unfolded differently if the setting had been an urban or suburban community. The influence of setting on a story outcome can additionally provide a strong basis for discussion of cultural norms and whether there are any universal codes of behavior. Activity Instruct students to reflect on the area of the country or world where the story they are currently reading takes place before jotting down four to six facts they believe to be true about that region.

What effect, if any, does the story location seem to have on character behaviors and story events? Challenge students to determine whether the story setting acts to empower or hinder the characters. Ask students to provide passages from the story to substantiate their choice. Use some of the questions listed below to stimulate a discussion of the story setting. How important do you feel it is to let readers know where characters reside? What makes you think so?

What makes you say that? Following the discussion, instruct students to use desktop publishing software to create an advertising brochure encouraging others to Groeber For inspiration, provide commercially prepared travel brochures for some initial ideas on content and layout. Display the completed brochures on a classroom or hallway bulletin board. Clothing, for example, plays a significant role in character description.

The right combination of shirts, sweaters, slacks, and shoes can spell instant connection between the reader and character; the wrong outfit could lead the reader to reject the character. Some offbeat characters might wear something from a trunk in the attic that was popular when their parents were teenagers. These characters often possess less conventional views and opinions and sometimes suffer the taunts of their peers due to their individuality. This very trait often makes a character appealing, but an author must be cautious. Why do you think that is true?

Finally, have students sketch an outfit or cut and paste an outfit from catalog pages depicting a style the character would enjoy receiving as a gift. Share the finished sketches and montages with the small group and discuss why these outfits were chosen.

Comparing words and actions is a good way to identify characters as positive or negative individuals. Positive individuals strive to say what they mean rather than conceal their true feelings with empty statements that are often in conflict with their body language. For example, a character maintains that he is happy to be at a new school but spends a good part of his time engaging in destructive behavior. While these negative actions may get him the attention he craves, he is clearly not happy about his new environment and, despite what he says, he is unable to behave as though he is.

Sometimes characters make an intentional decision to conceal their true feelings and make statements that do not reflect what they believe. They may assume this behavior with a goal in mind a politician may behave in a certain way to increase voter appeal; a girl may try to emulate the behavior she feels will attract new or more boyfriends. In doing this, characters realize that being true to oneself is a foundation for being honest with others. Students can compile and examine these lists independently or in small groups before answering some of the questions listed below.

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Use passages from the text to support your response. What made you want to say one thing and do something different? What does this disparity tell you about the character?

How do you feel about placing your trust in this type of person? Finally, divide the groups, instructing half of the members to argue against characters acting in a way that is contrary to spoken messages. Challenge the opposing students to make an argument that there are times when it is appropriate for words and actions to differ. Many intermediate and middle school students develop such a connection to story characters that they may speculate about what their fictional friend or alter ego might do in a variety of situations.

Rather than simply allowing students to speculate randomly on what a character will or will not do in any given circumstance, this activity, which can be completed as a written journal entry or a role-playing scenario, requires readers to substantiate their responses with at least one instance in the story that leads them to believe they can predict this reaction from the character.

Activity Instruct students to select a character from a story they are currently reading. Story characters with fewer than three or four appearances in a story are less well-developed and therefore, more difficult to predict actions. While student selection of characters is an independent assignment, if students opt for the roleplaying format of this assignment, they may work with small groups as their audience.

First, distribute index cards and have students write down a situation on the card. If the journal entry format is used, instruct students to assume the identity of the character they have chosen and write responses to the situation on the card.

A sample entry might begin this way: If the role-playing format is used, the student can appoint classmates to take part in the scenario while the student takes the part of the story character. At the conclusion of the scenario, ask the student to identify the passage that made it logical to assume the story character would behave in the same way as the student did in the role-playing activity.

The format of this activity can also be varied so students can develop both written and verbal expression. Charles Dickens and Pat Conroy are two examples of authors who give readers a glimpse into their lives through the eyes and minds of their characters. This approach may help authors tell their stories using the protective insulation of a well-developed character who may avoid or repeat the mistakes they feel that have made in life. The amount and depth of detail used may vary, but at the heart of these characters is the heart of the author.

Like readers, authors store up lifetimes of memories and experiences that they bring to their work. They draw from this vast well to develop the short stories and novels we read. With this advice in mind, instruct students to select a story and begin by researching the author on the Internet.

Well known authors often have a number of sites including one that may contain their name, such as www. Have students compile a profile of the author including their background and any available details—limiting this part of the assignment to two to three class periods to avoid redundancy. Before reading the story, have students browse and organize the compiled information. Encourage the use of visual representations such as Venn diagrams Groeber Use some of the questions below for a postreading discussion of this assignment. By high school, students are still reading fictional novels and still required to produce work that attests to their comprehension of such literary elements as plot, character, and setting; however, the majority of these readers feel reluctant to do one more character study.

As teachers, we need to document whether our students have a grasp on these elements, so the need for a new approach takes on greater importance. Believable story characters seem to possess an essence that prompts readers to imagine that if they suspended disbelief for a short time, those characters could step from the pages of the book and into the classroom or a favorite after-school hangout.

Their lives often parallel those of the readers who come to respect and understand the problems these characters encounter in the journey through life. Activity Begin this activity with a discussion of the tasks facing students in the months and weeks that lie ahead. In all likelihood, at least one of the responses will pertain to attempts to secure a part-time or full-time job after graduation. Once the information is collected, use desktop publishing software to create a copy for display in the classroom.

As an added activity, have students use Post-it Notes to tack up possible suggestions of jobs for the character. A character who loves animals can work in a veterinary clinic or pet-grooming parlor. Leave the Post-its in place for five to seven days to determine which of the story characters might be the most or least employable. The tone and volume of the music lets viewers in on the fact that something of significance to the plot is about to happen. Upbeat melodies that seem to increase in volume and intensity suggest that the hero and heroine, separated by circumstance or deliberate obstacles, may find their way back together at last.

An element known as foreshadowing employs vignettes that offer clues about a new or unexpected direction the story will take. Another example of foreshadowing describes a lonely wealthy recluse conducting a tour of his mansion to a new housekeeper. As he explains that the house has seemed empty since the death of his wife, the pair strolls through a corridor past a portrait of the deceased woman that bears an eerie resemblance to the housekeeper.

Recognizing foreshadowing gives readers the opportunities to make informed guesses or predictions about what is ahead in the story. Readers who fail to note these clues tucked into the story background by the author miss an exciting opportunity to be in on a special secret. For readers less experienced in identifying foreshadowing, this may be a good place to start by reading a short story to the class that contains some examples of foreshadowing.

At various points in the story, ask students what they think will happen next. Then, ask them what information led them to make their statements. When students seem to have Groeber This assignment can also be completed in small groups with students collaborating on the creation of foreshadowing inserts to share with the rest of the class. In the weeks before the end of the year, teachers can compile a literature scavenger hunt that challenges students to find certain specific literary elements or plot devices from stories they have read throughout the school year.

The questions should be kept open-ended enough so that more than one response could be considered correct, and varied enough to include each of the literary elements at least once. The hunt can be expanded to other subjects by sharing copies of the items with content area teachers who may have asked the students to read certain works of fiction as part of a social studies or science unit. The assignment can also be ongoing during the final month of classes with students being asked to provide examples from the stories to substantiate their responses. Small incentive prizes could be awarded for speed of completion, rate of accuracy, or most unique responses using stories not repeated by many other students.

At this time, set any restrictions you feel are appropriate while outlining the rules of the activity. For example, you may want to restrict students to stories and novels they have read during the past year or past two years. Distribute the list and review it with students. The list does not have to be completed in a single session or single week. Students can do it during the course of a specified period as a long-term assignment to be completed in and out of school. Use some of the questions below as a sample. Identify the characters and their relationship to one another. Give three details about the setting.

A variation of this scavenger hunt would be to compile a set of questions on index cards and have each student draw five to six cards so that no two student hunts would be identical. Evaluate the completed hunt findings based on accuracy and ability to offer insight into responses. It is through the eyes of these characters that readers catch a glimpse of what is important to an author.

In some instances, authors invest their central characters with the theme or moral of the story. In Grapes of Wrath, John Steinbeck uses the world-weary shoulders of his primary character, Tom Joad, to transport the central theme of fighting against the oppression of the common man. His words and actions still resonate in circumstances when human rights are jeopardized. Activity Following a discussion about the idea of a literary theme as the central message an author attempts to convey in a story, instruct students to select a book they have recently completed for the following activity.

Working independently or in small three to four students groups, challenge students to identify the unifying theme of the story. Next, have students reflect on various central characters to find one character or two whose words and actions embody that message. For an extended activity, allow students to share their work with classmates comparing similar story themes and how authors found various ways to use characters to communicate the underlying messages of their stories.

As readers become better acquainted with these literary individuals, they can begin to make judgments about what type of activities the character would enjoy or how a character might react in a variety of situations. Mature readers are more likely to complete this task successfully, as it requires use of knowledge learned about a character in the story and application to the real world. For example, readers using information from a story may make reasonable predictions about the type of career in which the character would succeed, as well as the type of job that would fail to interest that same character.

While some of the cues that allow readers to make these predictions are obvious, such as a blind character being unable to become a commercial airline pilot, other information is subtler and readers must be able to recognize usable information. If a story character is not proficient at balancing his or her own checkbook, the odds are against that character doing well in the competitive world of finance and marketing. Recognizing which information is helpful in making predictions is at the heart of understanding the inner dialogue of a story character.

In fictional accounts as in real life, each person has something worthwhile to offer others. For some people, it is the gift of their time and energy spent volunteering for a cause, for others it may simply be writing a check that will fund the same charity. Many wealthy individuals stand in the serving line of a second harvest kitchen for homeless people while some people feel that a check is something that can be done without having to come into close contact with these unfortunate souls.

Activity Challenge students to return to a story they have recently completed to select a character for this activity. Once the character is chosen, ask students to decide what is important to the character. What does this character value in life? Is the character a person of action or words?

Next, have students go online to look for a list of charitable organizations. The organizations can be local, national, or global in scope. Have students match the type of work done by a specific organization with the values and abilities of the story character. For example, a retired firefighter who also happens to be an avid animal lover might be interested in donating time to help an organization whose members travel to disaster sites to rescue stranded pets.

Once the characters are matched with an organization, have each student assume the role of the story character and write a letter to the charitable organization offering to assist and detailing qualifications for the volunteer position. The completed letters can be posted on a classroom bulletin board, and made especially apparent if your school has a Volunteers Week. It will not break, like a bubble, at a touch; you may kick it about all day like a football and it will be round and full at evening.

This format is known as expository, or nonfiction, text. Comprised of words and phrases similar to those found in fiction, expository materials focus on topics rather than stories or poems. In this chapter, we will examine the five most common ways that expository text is organized: In addition to these text structures, this chapter will examine the alternate methods such as 55 Groeber If readers are unable to read and analyze the information contained in a chart or graph, their ability to develop a clear understanding about the topic is likely to be compromised.

Taking the time to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each reader and develop strategies to facilitate reading comprehension is the first step on a journey toward a more literate future for each student in the classroom and in life. In the earliest years of formal education, much of the factual information students acquire comes from teacher talk, pictures and illustrations, or hands-on experiences. However, as students move into intermediate and middle school, they learn not only about things, places, and people through nonfiction or expository texts, they are also introduced to ideas, concepts, and opinions in the same manner.

For this reason, they must acquire a different set of reading behaviors more suited to dealing with this new kind of information. The use of specialized vocabulary often requires the addition of a glossary or minidictionary at the end of a book or chapter that enables readers to find information about the new words they will encounter during their exploration of a topic. The use of charts, graphs, and maps is another way that expository text conveys data to readers. For older learners, reading takes on added importance, as it is required in most subject areas.