From Partners to Adversaries: The Background to Shooting a Turkish Plane (On Turkey)

The most high-profile case of an American detained in Turkey after the July coup attempt is that of Andrew Brunson, a Presbyterian pastor who had been living with his family and working with a small congregation in Izmir since Brunson and his wife were arrested in October ; she was released 13 days later but he remained in custody. In September , President Erdogan appeared to suggest an exchange of Brunson for Fethullah Gulen, but a State Department spokesperson said in response to a question on the issue, "I can't imagine that we would go down that road.

If convicted, he could face up to 35 years in prison. Also in March, Senator Thom Tillis visited Brunson in prison and reported a number of concerns about Brunson's well-being, including that Brunson's physical health had deteriorated and that he had lost 50 pounds. On April 17, , President Trump tweeted, "Pastor Andrew Brunson, a fine gentleman and Christian leader in the United States, is on trial and being persecuted in Turkey for no reason.

The indictment suggests otherwise, the claims in the indictment were laughable. This [Brunson] is clearly an innocent man. On April 20, 66 Senators sent a letter to President Erdogan on Brunson's behalf, and Representatives followed with a similar letter on May 4. In addition to denouncing the charges against Brunson, both letters said that the indictment's suggestion that Brunson's religious teachings undermined the Turkish state "brings a new and deeply disturbing dimension to the case.

Commission on International Religious Freedom, and his case has influenced some of the legislation on Turkey pending before Congress. In July , Brunson's case was scheduled for further action in October, and he was transferred from prison to house arrest, ostensibly for medical reasons.

In response, President Trump and Vice President Pence demanded that Turkey release Brunson or face sanctions, amid conflicting reports about whether the United States and Turkey had reached an understanding for Brunson to go free. Separately, two prominent Turkish citizens with government ties were arrested by U. One, Reza Zarrab, received immunity for cooperating with prosecutors, while the other, Mehmet Hakan Atilla, was convicted and sentenced in May to 32 months in prison.

The case was repeatedly denounced by Turkish leaders, who were reportedly concerned about the potential implications for Turkey's economy if the case led U. On some occasions during Erdogan's trips outside Turkey, members of his security detail have gotten into physical confrontations with those they perceive as Erdogan's critics or political opponents.

Turkey signs deal to get Russian S-400 air defence missiles

The incident featured confrontation between the security guards and largely Kurdish protestors, and 19 people who acted to quell the protest were indicted by a DC grand jury on charges of conspiracy to commit violent crime. Bilateral tensions have contributed to various legislative proposals by Members of Congress, alongside a public debate about the potential costs and benefits of sanctions against Turkey.

That embargo lasted from to The provision prohibits the delivery of F aircraft to Turkey until the report is submitted. The report will include. Turkey is a cooperative partner in developing the F, and as part of its involvement, several Turkish companies are assisting with development and manufacture of various F components. Some Members of Congress have sought to prevent or place conditions on Turkey's acquisition of Fs because of the S deal, Pastor Brunson's imprisonment, or other U.

Additionally, the report expressed concerns about U. Because the F program is multinational, unwinding Turkey's involvement could be costly and complicated. According to these two Members. This investment would be required to be returned to the Turkish Government if the United States fails to deliver on the contract. Even more significantly, Turkey manufactures critical components of the F Removing them from the program will lead to delays and [cost] overruns to the rest of the partners and allies.

Turkey could take a number of measures in response to U. For FY, the Senate Appropriations Committee proposed a provision for annual appropriations legislation section e of S. In March, Senator Jeanne Shaheen said that she and Senator James Lankford had agreed to drop the above provision which they had originally sponsored from FY appropriations legislation P. Turkey's involvement in Syria's conflict since has been complicated and costly. In addition to its ongoing military activities in Syria, Turkey hosts about 3.

With the large-scale return of refugees to Syria uncertain, Turkey has focused on how to manage their presence in Turkish society by addressing their legal status, basic needs, employment, education, and impact on local communities. Problems in the Turkish economy may be fueling some negative views of the refugees among Turkish citizens, and some violence between the two groups has been reported.

Since , the SDF has been the main U.

After Turkey moved against IS-held territory in northern Syria as a way to prevent the YPG from consolidating its rule across much of the border area between the two countries Operation Euphrates Shield, August March , Turkey launched an offensive directly against the YPG in the Afrin district in January In Afrin and the other areas Turkey has occupied since , Turkey has set up local councils, though questions persist about future governance and Turkey's overarching role.

Some observers, citing signs of a YPG insurgency, predict that the Turkish military may feel compelled to stay for an extended period of time. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights OHCHR published a report in June alleging possible violations by the de facto authorities of international humanitarian and human rights laws—including actions or omissions that prevent Kurds from returning to their homes. After concerns grew in early that Turkish forces could conceivably clash with U. Special Operations personnel patrolling Manbij or its vicinity if Turkey advanced on the area, the two countries have sought to deconflict their forces.

Turkey's priorities in Syria appear to have evolved during the course of Syria's civil war. While Turkey still officially calls for Syrian President Bashar al Asad to leave power, it has engaged in a mix of coordination and competition with Russia and Iran Asad's supporters on some matters since intervening militarily in Syria starting in August Similar interaction takes place between Turkey and the United States given the U.

Turkey may be seeking to protect its borders, project influence, promote commerce, and counter other actors' regional ambitions. Turkey is part of the Astana process that it launched with Russia and Iran in January to seek Syria's post-civil war stability and territorial integrity. A number of considerations drive the complicated dynamics behind Turkey's international relationships.

Turkey's history as both a regional power and an object of great power aggression translates into wide popularity for nationalistic political actions and discourse. This nationalistic sentiment might make some Turks wary of Turkey's partial reliance on other key countries for example, the United States for security, European Union countries for trade, and Russia and Iran for energy.

Moreover, Turkey's maintenance of cooperative relationships with countries whose respective interests may conflict involves a balancing act. Turkey's vulnerability to threats from Syria and Iraq increases the pressure on it to manage this balance. Additionally, grievances that Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his supporters espouse against seemingly marginalized domestic foes the military and secular elite who previously dominated Turkey, the Fethullah Gulen movement, Kurdish nationalists, and liberal activists extend to the United States and Europe due to apparent suspicions of Western sympathies for these foes.

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Turkey's Middle Eastern profile expanded in the s as Erdogan while serving as prime minister sought to build economic and political linkages—often emphasizing shared Muslim identity—with Turkey's neighbors. However, efforts to increase Turkey's influence and offer it as a "model" for other regional states appear to have been set back by a number of developments since Although Turkey shares some interests with traditional Sunni Arab powers Saudi Arabia and Egypt in countering Iran, these countries' leaders regard Turkey suspiciously because of its government's Islamist sympathies and close relationship with Qatar see " Other International Relationships " below.

Turkey-Russia relations appear to have improved significantly since a rapprochement in Russia had imposed economic sanctions on Turkey and closed Syrian airspace to it after the Turkish military shot down a Russian fighter aircraft near the Turkey-Syria border in November Since the rapprochement, the two countries have cooperated in a number of areas, most notably. Viewpoints vary on the significance of closer Turkey-Russia relations. Some analysts have posited that Erdogan may be seeking closer relations with Russia, possibly at the expense of Turkey's relations with the United States and Europe.

Other observers have explained Turkish policy changes largely by reference to the leverage Russia used with sanctions and airspace closures after the November incident. Central Command, said that Russia along with Iran is trying to "fracture the longstanding U. They are trying to flip many of our allies. While Turkey and Iran are sometimes rivals for regional influence, they also work together on certain regional issues and to ensure Turkish access to Iranian oil and gas. Iranian ties with the Syrian and Iraqi governments and with various Iraqi Kurdish groups provide it with some possible leverage over Turkey.

Turkey and Iran along with Russia coordinate their efforts in Syria as part of the Astana process, as mentioned above. President Trump's decision to withdraw from the Iranian nuclear agreement in May may further complicate both Turkey-Iran and U. Turkish officials have said that Turkey will not comply with U. Another concern—despite generally positive relations between Turkey and Iraq's Kurdistan Regional Government KRG —is the possibility that Iraqi Kurdish moves toward independence could spread separatist sentiment among Kurds in Turkey.

Turkey also maintains an uneasy relationship with Iraq's central government over concerns that its Shia leaders are unduly influenced by Iran and that Iraq's security forces and Shia militias often mistreat Sunni Arabs and Turkmen. Relations with Baghdad are also strained by Iraqi concerns about the potential impact that Turkish dam construction and water management decisions could have on downstream Iraqi communities. Around , Turkey started developing a political and economic partnership with the KRG. As part of this cooperation, in the KRG began transporting oil through pipelines to Turkish ports for international export.

However, Turkey and most other countries strongly opposed the KRG's symbolic popular referendum on independence. Turkey halted oil exports connected with the KRG pipelines after the referendum. Turkey has conducted airstrikes against PKK safe havens in Iraq, with reported intelligence assistance from the United States, since The KRG—given its own rivalry with the PKK—generally does not object to these strikes, though it remains sensitive to pan-Kurdish sympathies among its population.

Partly because of the constraints a Turkish operation would face from the area's harsh terrain and weather conditions, the operation may be more focused on projecting Turkish determination and competence to other stakeholders in northern Iraq than on decisively defeating the PKK. Ties between Turkey and Israel, which were close during the s and early s, have deteriorated considerably during Erdogan's rule. This slide has reflected the military's declining role in Turkish society relative to Erdogan and other leaders whose criticisms of Israel resound with domestic public opinion.

Despite the countries' differences, trade between the two countries has grown. After years of downgraded diplomatic ties following the Mavi Marmara or Gaza flotilla incident, Turkey and Israel announced the full restoration of diplomatic relations in , in a deal reportedly facilitated by the United States. Israelis routinely decry Turkey's ties with Hamas and its refusal to characterize Hamas as a terrorist organization. Additionally, Erdogan has sought to lead regional opposition to the U. Some observers have characterized negative statements by Erdogan and other prominent Turkish voices about Israel, Zionism, and other historical references as anti-Semitic.

In connection with bilateral tensions, Israel has raised concerns with U. Turkey has a long history of partnership with the European Union and its predecessor organizations and began negotiations to join the EU in Talks stalled shortly thereafter and Turkey's membership is now seen as unlikely, at least in the near future.

Many analysts argue that resistance to Turkish EU accession has been rooted in a fear that Turkey's large Muslim population would fundamentally change the cultural character of the EU and dilute the power of the EU's founding Western European states in particular. Turkey's unwillingness to normalize diplomatic and trade relations with EU member Cyprus presents a major obstacle to its accession prospects. Other EU concerns over Turkey's qualifications for membership center on the treatment of Kurds and religious minorities, media freedoms, women's rights, and the proper and transparent functioning of Turkey's democratic and legal systems.

In a symbolic vote, the European Parliament passes a resolution urging that accession talks with Turkey be halted. Debate regarding the extent to which Turkey meets EU standards has intensified in recent years in light of domestic controversies since and President Erdogan's consolidation of power. Erdogan has used anti-European rhetoric to gain support both at home and among the substantial Turkish diaspora communities in Europe.

Turkish domestic expectations of full accession to the EU have apparently been in decline for several years, though support for joining the EU remains according to some polls. Despite the lack of significant progress in accession negotiations, the EU provides Turkey hundreds of millions of euros in annual pre-accession financial and technical assistance separate from the support for refugees addressed below.

Since , nearly four million refugees or migrants from Syria and other countries have come to Turkey, posing significant humanitarian, socioeconomic, and security challenges.

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Turkey and the European Union EU reached an arrangement in March providing for the return from Greece to Turkey of "irregular migrants or asylum seekers whose applications have been declared inadmissible. From to , hundreds of thousands of Armenians died as a result of actions of the Ottoman Empire Turkey's predecessor state.

Turkey and Armenia initially agreed in on a set of joint protocols to normalize relations, but the process stalled shortly thereafter and there has been little or no momentum toward restarting it. Congress has considered how to characterize the events of on a number of occasions. A number of other proposed resolutions characterizing these World War I-era events as genocide have been reported by various congressional committees see Appendix C for a list.

In the th Congress, resolutions have been introduced in both the House H. Presidents since Jimmy Carter have made public statements memorializing the events, with President Ronald Reagan referring to a "genocide of the Armenians" during a Holocaust Remembrance Day speech in Since Cyprus became independent of the United Kingdom in , Turkey has viewed itself as the protector of the island's ethnic Turkish-Cypriot minority from potential mistreatment by the ethnic Greek-Cypriot majority.

This prompted an almost total ethnic and de facto political division along geographical lines that persists today. The Republic of Cyprus's accession to the EU in and Turkey's refusal to normalize political and commercial relations with it are seen as major obstacles to Turkey's EU membership aspirations. Moreover, EU accession may have reduced incentives for Cyprus's Greek population to make concessions toward a reunification deal.

Turkey's relations with Greece are also fraught. The two countries joined NATO in , but intercommunal tensions, the Cyprus question, and border disputes "ensured that war between the two allies remained a real risk well into the s. Turkey seeks to use political and economic influence to strengthen relationships with non-Western countries. Through political involvement, increased trade and investment, and humanitarian and development projects, Turkey has curried favor with foreign countries not only in the greater Middle East, but also in the Balkans, the Caucasus and Central Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa.

Questions persist about how these ties will develop in response to changes in Turkey. Over the past year, Turkey established a military base in Somalia and announced a number of economic initiatives with countries near the Horn of Africa. Profiles of Key Figures in Turkey. Recep Tayyip Erdogan—President pronounced air-doe-wan. Born in , Erdogan was raised in Istanbul and in his familial hometown of Rize on the Black Sea coast.

He attended a religious imam hatip secondary school in Istanbul. In the s, Erdogan studied business at what is today Marmara University, became a business consultant and executive, and became politically active with the different Turkish Islamist parties led by eventual prime minister Necmettin Erbakan. Erdogan was elected mayor of Istanbul in but was removed from office, imprisoned for six months, and banned from parliamentary politics for religious incitement after publicly reciting a poem drawing from Islamic imagery.

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After Erbakan's government resigned under military pressure in and his Welfare Party was disbanded, Erdogan became the founding chairman of the AKP in The AKP won a decisive electoral victory in , and has led the government ever since. After the election, a legal change allowed Erdogan to run for parliament in a special election, and after he won, Erdogan replaced Abdullah Gul as prime minister.

Erdogan and his personal popularity and charisma have been at the center of much of the domestic and foreign policy change that has occurred in Turkey since he came to power. Erdogan became Turkey's first popularly elected president in August and won reelection to a newly empowered presidency in June Many observers believe that he primarily seeks to consolidate power and to avoid the reopening of corruption cases that could implicate him and close family members or associates. Erdogan is married and has two sons and two daughters.

He is widely believed to be positioning his son-in-law Berat Albayrak currently treasury and finance minister as a possible successor. Erdogan does not speak English. Born in in Tunceli province in eastern Turkey to an Alevi background, Kilicdaroglu is the leader of the CHP, which is the main opposition party and traditional political outlet of the Turkish nationalist secular elite. In recent years, the party has also attracted various liberal and social democratic constituencies.

After receiving an economics degree from what is now Gazi University in Ankara, Kilicdaroglu had a civil service career—first with the Finance Ministry, then as the director-general of the Social Security Organization. After retiring from the civil service, Kilicdaroglu became politically active with the CHP and was elected to parliament from Istanbul in Kilicdaroglu was elected as party leader in but has since faced criticism for the CHP's failure to make electoral gains.

The party's presidential nominee, Muharrem Ince, may be a potential rival to Kilicdaroglu going forward. Born in in Osmaniye province in southern Turkey, Bahceli is the leader of the MHP, which is the traditional Turkish nationalist party of Turkey that is known for opposing political accommodation with the Kurds. Bahceli moved to Istanbul for his secondary education, and received his higher education, including a doctorate, from what is now Gazi University in Ankara. After a career as an economics lecturer at Gazi University, he entered a political career as a leader in what would become the MHP.

He became the chairman of the MHP in and served as a deputy prime minister during a coalition government. He was initially elected to parliament in Bahceli has allied with Erdogan, providing support for the constitutional referendum and for Erdogan's presidential bid. She founded the party in as an alternative for nationalists and other Turks who oppose the MHP's alliance with Erdogan. Aksener studied at Istanbul University and received a doctorate in history from Marmara University, becoming a university lecturer before entering politics.

She was first elected to parliament in with the True Path Party, and served as interior minister in the coalition government that was ultimately forced from office in by a memorandum from Turkey's military. She served in parliament with the MHP from to and served for most of that time as deputy speaker. Aksener became a forceful opponent of Erdogan after the MHP agreed in to provide him the necessary parliamentary support for a constitutional referendum establishing a presidential system of government.

She left the party and campaigned vigorously against the proposed changes, which won adoption in despite the controversy that attended the vote. After founding the Good Party, she ran as its presidential candidate in the elections. Born in to an ethnic Kurdish family, Demirtas is the most prominent member of the HDP, which has a Kurdish nationalist base but has also reached out to a number of non-Kurdish constituencies, particularly liberals and minorities.

The constituency of the party and its various predecessors overlaps with that of the PKK, but the party professes a nonviolent stance and claims an independent identity. Demirtas was raised in Elazig in eastern Turkey. He attended universities in both Izmir and Ankara and received his law degree from Ankara University. He became a human rights activist leader in Diyarbakir and was elected to parliament for the first time in , becoming co-leader of the HDP's immediate predecessor party in His national visibility increased after he ran as one of two candidates opposing Erdogan for the presidency in That would mean that the command to shoot came from at most a colonel in tactical ground control.

They vigorously condemned the Russians. There was never any official or unofficial leak indicating anything was amiss with the shoot down, no one in the air or on the ground was relieved of their duties and there was no indication of an investigation. The politics also don't make sense. The Russian intervention in Syria was designed to bolster the Bashar al-Assad regime. This had been a blood feud for years. The Turks were furious at the Russian intervention, which made Turkey look weak at the same time questions were being raised about possible Turkish support for the Islamic State.

He was under pressure to respond somehow. Shooting down the Russian plane made political sense and it is extremely unlikely that a general order had not been issued authorizing rapid interdiction of any intruding aircraft. The idea, months after the incident, that it had been part of a coup is hard to fathom. It, however, makes sense to make this claim in the context of current Turkish strategy. But embedded in the demand is the hint that the U. Middle Eastern newspapers have been filled with the charge. And the foreign ministers of these two nations have already spoken by phone and plan to meet in person over the coming days, the news agency also reported, citing Turkish Foreign Ministry spokesman Tanju Bilgic.

Russia's Foreign Affairs ministry said Lavrov "expressed indignation" over the incident in the phone call. Two high-ranking Russian military officers have visited the Turkish general staff since the shootdown, Anadolu reported. It said that images from radar displays were shown to the Russian attaches during visits in Ankara. Even as Erdogan has insisted Turkey doesn't want to escalate the situation, the anger in his words -- and those of Putin -- showed that the conflict in Syria has now churned up a new and alarming wave of international turbulence.

The stakes are high in Syria, where the United States, Russia and a swarm of other global, regional and local forces are entangled in the civil war. Turkey, a NATO member, said it had repeatedly warned the Russian warplane, shooting it down only after it ignored several warnings and violated Turkish airspace.

Russia rejected that version of events, with the rescued co-pilot Capt. Konstantin Murakhtin telling state media reporters that "there were no warnings -- not via the radio, not visually. Pilot dead, marine killed in rescue attempt. Pilot dead, marine killed in rescue attempt Russian officials have also asserted that the Sukhoi Su bomber was attacked 1 kilometer inside Syrian territory. But Erdogan said parts of the downed plane had fallen inside Turkey, injuring two people. On Wednesday, Turkey's military released an audio recording of what it says was its warning to the Russian warplane.

In one portion, a voice is heard saying: You are approaching Turkish airspace. Change your heading south immediately. Change your heading south. Adding to the tensions were questions about the fates of the two Russian pilots aboard the bomber. Turkmen rebels operating in the area of Syria where the plane went down appeared to claim in a video that they shot both pilots to death as they parachuted toward the ground.

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The Russian military said it believed one of the pilots is dead. The Russian Defense Ministry said Wednesday that the second pilot had been rescued and was safe. The military also said a Russian marine was killed when a helicopter came under attack during the search and rescue efforts.