A Desert is Implicit

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What Is Implicit Bias?

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• Key Characteristics of Implicit Biases!
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Multiple regressions with all predictors of intended donation after using box cox transformation were significant for each biome: For every biome, explicit preference was the only significant predictor of intended donation see Table 3. These results provide stronger evidence than those in study 2, suggesting that explicit preferences predicted intended donation for conservation of biomes. As shown in Fig 3 d , forest, ocean, and grassland had more positive associations than expected by chance. As with other contexts e. In study 1, we found that implicit preferences of the species did not align with explicit preferences.

Specifically as a group, people implicitly preferred caribou the most, but explicitly preferred sea otter the most. For every species, explicit preference predicted intended donation and was correlated with familiarity. Thus, explicit preference, not implicit preference, predicted conservation intentions. In study 2 however, we found that implicit and explicit preferences were strongly aligned by order of preference at the group level, and forest and ocean were both preferred over grassland or tundra.

Explicit preference again predicted intended donation and was correlated with familiarity, consistent with previous studies [ 18 ]. Study 3 replicated the explicit preference portion of both studies with a broader sample of participants. The three studies have several implications for conservation purposes. First, in most cases conservation efforts and studies often focus on species, but comparatively biomes are poorly understood.

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• Explicit Not Implicit Preferences Predict Conservation Intentions for Endangered Species and Biomes.
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Our results add to the literature by suggesting that for biomes, explicit preferences determine intended donation, and these preferences are correlated with familiarity. Second, our results indicate more clearly the factors underpinning intended donations for both species and biomes.

Third, by using word association, we elucidate perceptions that may inform explicit preferences i. It was necessary to run all three studies in order to make comparisons between species and biomes and the factors that seem to inform conservation intentions.

Explicit Not Implicit Preferences Predict Conservation Intentions for Endangered Species and Biomes

For species, sea otters were strongly associated with the cute response, validated by the word association task i. The cute response has been shown to influence explicit preference [ 15 , 21 ]. However, for implicit responses, caribou was the most preferred, likely driven by its large body size. For example authors have found that larger animals are more popular than smaller animals among zoo visitors [ 30 ], and that after evaluating preferences for species, the top rated animals were the largest or aesthetically attractive [ 45 ].

In addition, American badger was least preferred explicitly in studies 1 and 3. These results may be explained by the qualitative data on the word association task, which showed that it was the only species with more negative than positive associations Fig 3. Since this is a terrestrial rather than marine species, people may relate to it more as a risk or a threat to livestock, pets, and property.

Our results may be interpreted through the affect heuristic proposed by Finucane et al. With regards to stimuli in this case technological hazards , Slovic et al. Our findings regarding the American badger can possibly be understood via the affect heuristic: For biomes, forest and ocean were more preferred than grassland and tundra because of the greater familiarity of forests and oceans.

We also found that conservation intentions for both species and biomes, as indicated by intended donations, were predicted by explicit preferences, not implicit preferences in all cases Table 3. One notable finding is that for lab participants, explicit preferences predicted intention to donate for all species study 1 but only for ocean across biomes study 2. In contrast, for Mturk participants, explicit preferences predicted intention to donate for all biomes, and only for caribou study 3.

The current study has important ethical implications. The principle of human equality is widely accepted and moral principles in many contemporary societies state that human races are equal despite racial, gender, mobility, income, or other bases of differentiation [ 49 ]. In the IAT studies evaluating social issues, findings are consistent with those principles because explicitly people respond in a conscious way to abide to those moral principles and answer that all races have equal moral standing, but implicitly a difference of attitudes toward racial groups is shown by the IAT.

However, when evaluating preferences toward species and biomes, this study showed that participants appeared to feel no need to hide preferences for particular species or biomes. Thus, biospherical egalitarianism—the principle that all species and biomes have equal moral standing [ 50 , 51 ], does not seem to apply as a moral principle guiding conscious judgments toward species and biomes.

Schmidtz argued that speciesism seems to apply more for societal perceptions of species, and that animals are often ranked in a moral scale with some having perceived superiority over others e. In addition, Greenwald, et al. Thus this idea of speciesism, or in other words a lack of biospherical egalitarianism, is perhaps a fundamental basis for our results because explicit preferences were much better predictors of intended donations than implicit preferences. Even though we found more robust results for explicit preferences, we should also consider the limitations of our tests of implicit preferences.

It is important to note that even though we conducted power analyses to choose our sample sizes for studies 1 and 2 based on studies conducted in our lab, other studies that have used MC-IATs have used extremely large samples e. Perhaps more participants may have been needed to get more reliable estimates of differences in implicit evaluations among species and biomes, but it was notable that we found differences nonetheless. We are aware that the MC-IAT is a noisy measure because a few trials must determine an aggregate score, and thus increasing sample sizes should be a priority for future research using MC-IATs.

The current findings can inform conservation campaigns that address endangered species and biomes by eliciting public support for policies tailored to specific species [ 52 ]. However, the interesting contribution of this study is that the same principle applies to charismatic biomes. Our study is among the first to show that explicit preference predicts the intended donation for the conservation of biomes and that such preferences are informed by familiarity. Conservation organizations addressing issues of endangered species and biomes might benefit from considering preferences and the negative versus positive associations.

For example, if an organization needs to raise funds for the conservation of the American badger or the tundra, campaigns might focus on portraying them in more positive terms, generating more positive affective attitudes toward them. Increasing familiarity could be accomplished through exposure to positive messaging, which could be found in various spheres e.

Additionally, the results may be used for selecting more favored flagship species for fundraising purposes. Further research can focus on running the IAT using different words for the associations with biomes and species. It may be useful to design a new IAT with the words that were recorded as common in the word association task in order to test if implicit preferences toward animals and biomes differ when different words are used.

Further research might also evaluate how intended donation predicts actual donation behavior. We are grateful for the people who participated in the study. Yu for assistance with data collection, and GG. Naidoo for helpful feedback. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Jan Callahan , 1 Kai M. Chan , 1 Terre Satterfield , 1 and Jiaying Zhao 1, 2.

Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Received Sep 2; Accepted Jan This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Participant demographics for study 1. Participant demographics for study 2. Participant demographics for study 3.

Creative commons licenses for the pictures used in the MC-IAT of species and biomes in studies 1, 2 and 3.

Associated Data

Questionnaire for study 1. Questionnaire for study 2. Questionnaire for study 3. Abstract Conservation of biodiversity is determined in part by human preferences. Study Goals Our goal was to investigate implicit and explicit preferences toward endangered species and biomes. Study 3 To generalize our findings from the explicit preferences to a broader population, we recruited participants female, male, 2 other via Amazon Mechanical Turk Mturk , an online crowdsourcing platform that enables researchers to conduct studies with a larger, worldwide participant sample.

Justification of Sampling Methods Online and student sampling in experiments is a widely accepted practice in psychology.

Table 1 Labels used in the coding analysis of the word association task for studies 1, 2 and 3. Open in a separate window. Implicit preferences for species and biomes.

Explicit preferences for species and biomes. Table 2 Correlation results for implicit and explicit attitudes between explicit and implicit attitudes for studies 1 and 2. Table 3 Results of multiple regression analyses for intention to donate as dependent variable in studies 1, 2, and 3. Word association results for species and biomes.

Discussion As with other contexts e. Supporting Information S1 Table Participant demographics for study 1. PDF Click here for additional data file. S2 Table Participant demographics for study 2. S3 Table Participant demographics for study 3. S2 Fig Questionnaire for study 1. S3 Fig Questionnaire for study 2. S4 Fig Questionnaire for study 3. Acknowledgments We are grateful for the people who participated in the study. Data Availability Data are available from the University of British Columbia and are stored in the Department of Psychology following the guidelines of the Behavioural Research Ethics Board for researchers who meet the criteria for access to confidential data.

The non-economic motives behind the willingness to pay for biodiversity conservation. Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test.

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J Pers Soc Psychol. Who cares about wildlife? The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition In: I attribute much more intelligence to nonconscious processes than he seems to think, and the role I attribute to consciousness is correlatively smaller and more indirect than he thinks. It is frustrating to be criticised for neglecting certain kinds of cases and the implications they have for my views after having devoted considerable attention to just these cases.

No doubt others will see any mistakes Brownstein makes in Levy-interpretation as a lot less serious than Levy himself does. Research on implicit attitudes -- especially when they are understood as broadly as Brownstein does here -- is in flux, and relatively new, so it's not possible to be very confident concerning several central claims Brownstein makes.

Are implicit attitudes "paradigmatically" affect-laden? It is worth highlighting how similar the FTBA architecture is to the influential predictive processing view of cognition, which aims to explain all mental processes in terms of prediction and error minimization, with 'surprisal' playing the role of tension and error minimization that of alleviation Jakob Howhy ; Andy Clark Surprisal may or may not be affect-laden when errors are easily minimized, no affect is likely to be experienced. The supposed imperatival quality of features is plausibly constituted affectively, but it is not apparent that implicit information processing always, or paradigmatically, has this quality.

Brownstein cites utilization behavior, a neurological condition in which agents fail to inhibit their responses to the features of objects, as evidence that features have an imperatival quality. But case reports of utilization behavior seem to involve agents who respond without apparent affect. He also notes that implicit biases are modulated by emotions consider how shooter bias is reduced by thinking "safe! But the context specificity of the manifestation of such biases suggests that the state is not constituted by all the FTBA components: In many cases, implicit biases seem to change the salience of information without affect playing any apparent role.

Perhaps FTBA states explain all spontaneous behaviors, but implicit attitudes certainly play a role in deliberation, and in these cases the FTBA picture seems less plausible. If implicit attitudes are often not affect-laden, they do not constitute cares, given Brownstein's account of the nature of cares on several occasions, he invokes the view that all cognition is affect-laden, but this strategy has the risks of multiplying cares excessively, and rendering the care condition redundant, insofar as it will do no work in settling the extension of the concept.

On Brownstein's view, being affect-laden is not sufficient for constituting a care: He claims that implicit attitudes satisfy this condition, because their relata are conceptually connected. This account seems to yield a picture of cares, and therefore attributability, that departs significantly from the picture others have urged and which seems more natural, inasmuch as the resulting attitude will be much narrower than we tend to think.

The evidence suggests that the relata are co-activated in highly specific circumstances. Shooter bias, for instance, shows moderate test-retest reliability, but appears to yield only a narrow attitude, on the FTBA construal: Similarly, implicit attitudes are subject to renewal effects, in which a bias extinguished in one context returns in full force in another that differs only trivially from it. Again, this suggests only a narrow attitude, and thus that agents will not have broad traits attributable to them like "being racist". As Brownstein himself argues in the useful appendix on the psychometric properties of implicit attitudes, the low correlation of different measures may be due to their tapping into different components.

This fragmentation may reasonably be seen as problematic for his claim that they constitute cares. These data suggest that implicit attitudes are often paradigmatically discontinuous and disconnected. It is hard to see how aretaic evaluation can be grounded on such attitudes. Having a disposition to behave in certain, narrow, ways, in certain, quite specific, contexts seems to fall short of having a character trait, for reasons familiar from the debate over virtue ethics and situationism.

It is extremely hard to see how the attitudes satisfy the neo-Lockean condition on constituting cares Brownstein claims to accept: The FTBA account of implicit attitudes takes certain bets on how future research will pan out.