Parasitas e Predadores (Portuguese Edition)

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One study described the native species S. In fact, from the species listed on this work, only S. In another study, the native species were identified as S. The Saccharum species involved in the development of modern sugarcane cultivars originated from Southeast Asia Roach and Daniels It is believed that its center of origin is Polynesia and that the species was disseminated throughout Southeast Asia, where a modern center of diversity was created in Papua New Guinea and Java Indonesia ; this is the region where the majority of specimens were collected in the late 19th century Roach and Daniels The center of origin and diversity of S.

These zones roughly represent natural cytogeographical clusters because S. Saccharum species present high ploidy levels. This phenomenon facilitated the work of the first breeders because nobilization consisted of increasing the ratio of the S. The hybrids are usually aneuploid, with a prevalence of bivalents, a significant proportion of univalents and rare multivalent associations during meiosis Daniels and Roach, Despite this genome complexity, evidence suggests a diploid-like mode of inheritance Hogarth, Ripidium , Sclerostachya, Narenga and Miscanthus sect.

Diandra provided the basis for modern sugarcane varieties Mukherjee, ; Roach and Daniels ; Daniels and Daniels, Saccharum officinarum was likely derived from crosses involving S. Erianthus arundinaceus and S. The presence of whole S. Ripidium, supports the hypothesis of hybridization among these species giving rise to Saccharum officinarum Daniels and Roach, ; Besse et al. Thus, there is a suggestion that Saccharum is a well-defined lineage that diverged over a long evolutionary period from the lineages leading to the Erianthus and Miscanthus genera Grivet et al.

Sugarcane breeding is based on the selection and cloning of superior genotypes from segregating populations that was obtained by crossing contrasting individuals. To maximize the efficiency of this rather long process, it is divided into various phases, including choosing suitable parentals and quantifying environmental effects on the expression of the selection characters. The first step of a sugarcane breeding program consists of establishing a germplasm collection in a heavy flowering area where the flowering time of the parental lines can be synchronized.

A typical sugarcane variety development program Fig. The resulting seeds give rise to a large number of progeny seedlings , which are needed to increase the chance of obtaining improved cultivars from superior genetic combinations. The selection process is conducted in distinct locations to identify superior genotypes with improved agronomical performance and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses.

On average, one commercial variety can be obtained for every , seedlings evaluated in the first stage of the breeding program T1. The selection process continues in the second and third phases, which are evaluated under different environmental conditions Fig.

Flowchart of a sugarcane breeding program. Sugarcane flowering is regulated by day length known as the photoperiod. Flowering induction and development occur when the hours of light decreases from Flowering induction is only effective after the juvenile period has been completed, i. The low flowering percentage of S. Moore and Osgood, Sugarcane pollen is small, ca.

Therefore, pollen dispersed over large distances is not expected to be viable. Because sugarcane is predominantly an outcrossing large stature plant, the first breeding programs used seeds from the open pollination of field grown plants, with no control over the male parent. Currently, crosses are conducted in a controlled manner under plastic domes or lanterns, where parentage can be guarenteed Fig. For specific crosses, the flowering dates of desired parents are synchronized by manipulating the photoperiod Moore, b.

Stalks with inflorescences from selected parents are harvested and kept in an acidic solution to keep the stalks fresh which facilitates successful fertilization and seed maturation Heinz and Tew, Normally, crosses are conducted in protected locations, such as in the middle of the forest or in covered sheds containing isolation cells, to avoid undesired cross-contamination. Panicles are then harvested and placed in a heated chamber to dry the seeds Ethirajan, In a variety development program, sugarcane cultivars are selected for low flowering.

However, because flowering is influenced by environmental conditions, flowering in cultivation fields may still occur in a given location or in a given year. If seeds are produced and fall onto the soil, germination only occurs under conditions of high temperature and humidity. Therefore, sexual reproduction is strongly compromised in locations that have a dry, cold autumn, such as southern Brazil and the southern parts of the southeastern and midwestern regions of Brazil. In the northern parts of the southeastern and midwestern regions, relative humidity but not nighttime temperature is normally restrictive.

In general, some flowering may occur in the southern, southeastern and midwestern regions of Brazil, and in some years, it may even be intense. However, in the northeastern region, conditions are favorable for both flowering and seed formation. Seed dehiscence occurs during the wet season, which favors seed germination under field conditions. Commercial sugarcane production is performed exclusively using vegetatively propagated material of comercial hybrids. Under ideal flowering conditions, sugarcane pollen is dispersed by wind, with no participation of animal or insect vectors McIntyre and Jackson, Because sugarcane pollen has low viability, natural hybridization can only occur close to the pollen-supplying plant Moore, ; Venkatraman, Thus, little seed set is expected since pollen rapidly loses its viability.

Although crossings between species of the genus Saccharum with other closely related species have been suggested to occur in the wild Grassl ; Daniels and Roach, , wild hybridization has not been reported with current sugarcane varieties. Hybridization among sugarcane species and Erianthus sect. However, genetic transfer among commercial hybrids and these ancestral species, if existent, are much lower under natural conditions Bonnett et al. In addition, there is no data on the biology of the wild Brazilian Saccharum species such as S. The Saccharum species that gave rise to commercial sugarcane varieties S.

In Brazil, these species exist only in germplasm collections which are used in sugarcane breeding programs. Under breeding station conditions, they can flower synchronously and successfully hybridize with modern varieties. However, lateral transfer of genes among modern sugarcane hybrids and those species is not expected to occur under natural Brazilian environmental conditions. The first step towards establishing a commercial sugarcane field is the production of vegetative planting material from the desired commercial variety under approved sanitary conditions at nurseries.

To assure the starting material is disease-free, it is common practice that the stalks to be used as planting material are either exposed to thermotherapy a hot water treatment to control systemic bacterial infections such as ratoon stunting disease , or they are obtained aseptically through meristem culture free of bacteria and viruses , or from a combination of methods. Essentially, there are three types of nurseries differing primarily in size and generations removed from initial asepsis:. Commercial plantations are generally established using time proven conventional methods.

Rows are spaced at distances varying from 0. Stalks are distributed in furrows in pairs with the base of one stalk paired against the upper part of the other, i. After the stalks are distributed in the furrow, they are sectioned into 2 to 3-node seed pieces to interrupt apical dominance that exists in the intact stalk. In soils known to be infested by insect pests or nematodes, pesticides are applied over the cuttings in the furrows.

In Brazil, the use of irrigation in commercial sugarcane fields is generally not necessary, contributing to low production costs. Currently, as marginal production areas, primarily drier areas with inadequate rainfall, are added to the sugarcane industry through crop expansion, drought tolerance is seen as an increasingly important trait for sugarcane varieties Pires et al. When the crop begins to grow, the most important agronomic practice is weed control. Once an optimal plant stand is established, the major concern is to employ practices to insure good crop development to achieve good maturation, i.

Proper practices assure optimization of the harvesting-milling operations and, consequently, overall economic return. This aim is achieved by mills cultivating a range of varieties having different soil nutrient requirements, rates of maturation and reliable disease resistance. In Brazil, sugarcane harvesting is either semi-mechanized or completely mechanized.

In the first case, the cane is harvested manually, but it is loaded onto trucks mechanically; in the second case, the cane is harvested by machines that load it directly onto trucks. Sugarcane is a semiperennial crop in commercial fields. It has to be replanted approximately every three to six harvests when grown under the rainfed conditions of Brazil.

Replanting is required because of declining yields due to crop and soil damage caused by the heavy traffic of machines and trucks over the stumps during harvesting. In addition, there could be a progressive accumulation over time of pathogens in the sugarcane crop, some of which reduce stand population while others impair plant growth. There may also be a genetic component contributing to yield decline because most of the commercial cultivars have been selected to produce well only for the first three to four cultivation cycles.

The overall result is a decrease in year-over-year productivity, which can reach economically unfeasible levels and the need to replant the field Matsuoka et al. There are two basic sugarcane production cycles. The plant-cane cycle starts with planting and ends after the first harvest.

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The ratoon, or ratoon-cane, cycle starts after the harvest of the plant cane and continues with successive ratoon crops until field renewal Fig. The complete cycle of a sugarcane field lasts either four or five seasons, after which time the crop is renewed. Eradication of the crop after it has become economically unfeasible is performed by ploughing it under and harrowing the soil, which is often preceded by the application of a systemic herbicide. The most important sugarcane insect pests in Brazil are the sugarcane borers Diatraea saccharalis and Diatraea flavipennella , the giant sugarcane borer Telchin licus , spittlebugs Mahanarva fimbriolata and Mahanarva posticata , termites different genera , the migdolus beetle Migdolus fryanus , the sugarcane weevil Sphenophorus levis and herbivorous ants Atta spp.

Both species construct galleries in the stalks, leading to less biomass and sugar production, and an increase in fungal infections and juice contamination. These sugarcane borers are mainly controlled by massive release of the parasitoid Cotesia flavipes , which is normally reared in labs at the various mills.

Sugarcane borers are also controlled, although by a lesser extent, by the release of the parasitic wasp Trichogramma galloi. Currently there is strong evidence that the sugarcane borer population has been increasing due to the expansion of cane into new areas, the cultivation of susceptible varieties, and the failure to use biological control.

The increase in borer populations has been causing an increase in the use of pesticides to control these insects Dinardo-Miranda, a. The giant sugarcane borer T. Biological and chemical control mechanisms against T. The root froghopper M. Crop damage is caused by the young insect nymph , which sucks water and nutrients from plant roots and injects toxins into them, leading to a decrease in root function and, consequently, a loss of productivity. Release of the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae results in good biological control, which can be complemented or replaced by pesticide spraying Dinardo-Miranda, a.

The leaf spittlebug M. There are many species of termites that attack sugarcane in the the country. Among these species, H. These underground insects attack the stalks used for planting, leading to low bud germination and the need for replanting Dinardo-Miranda, a. Farmers control termites by spraying pesticides over the stalks in the furrow during planting.

The migdolus beetle Migdolus fryanus is a native Brazilian insect that attacks the roots of many crops, including sugarcane, coffee, eucalyptus and beans Bento et al. The insect can destroy the root system, leading to an early need for field replanting. Recently, the use of pheromone traps has been shown to be very promising for controlling this pest Nakano et al. The sugarcane weevil Sphenophorus levis is another beetle that attacks the sugarcane root system, leading to damage similar to that caused by the migdolus beetle.

Consequently, one of the more effective control practices for this pest is to avoid planting cane that is harvested from infected areas. Ants that behave as pests in the sugarcane crop belong to the genera Atta and Acromyrmex. The species Atta bisphaerica and Atta capiguara cause most of the losses, but Atta sexdens and Atta laevigata also cause damage. Studies have shown that the ants of one anthill can reduce sugarcane productivity by 3.

Control of these pests is accomplished using pesticides that must be applied very carefully because the pesticides could kill predator ants that are beneficial to the crop. Many species of nematodes are found in association with sugarcane, but in Brazil, most of the damage is caused by five species: Meloidogyne incognita , Meloidogyne javanica , Pratylenchus zeae , Pratylenchus brachyurus and Helycotylenchus dihystera.

These nematodes are mainly controlled with chemical pesticides because nematode-resistant varieties have not been developed in the Brazilian sugarcane breeding programs Dinardo-Miranda, b. It is also possible to use nematocides in ratoon cycles, but the control of nematodes on ratoons is not as effective Dinardo-Miranda, b. Registered products to control insects and nematodes in sugarcane fields in Brazil.

In addition to insects that act as pests, sugarcane fields contain other associated insects with different biological functions, which comprise the sugarcane insect fauna entomofauna. There have been several sugarcane entomofauna studies aimed at identifying the impact of sugarcane field burning on the associated insect crop population. However, identifying the risks to the insect fauna of adopting specific technologies, such as new agrochemicals and genetically modified cultivars for crop improvement requires detailed analyses of the individual species that are most important and meaningful for monitoring Romeis et al.

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Species selection must be based on the biological functions of the insects, their abundance and their economic importance. Other, less objective criteria such aesthetic value, cultural value and species at risk, may also be used Romeis et al. Although sugarcane is a vigorous plant, the crop suffers from weed competition in its initial development stages. The most detrimental weed species are in the Poaceae and Cyperaceae families, but morning glory species may also interfere by coiling around the sugarcane plants, reducing leaf unfurling to decrease the photosynthetic area and slowing mechanical harvesting.

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In most sugarcane production areas of the world, herbicide use chemical control is the most common way to control sugarcane weeds. List of common weeds occurring in Brazilian sugarcane fields. Registered products to control weeds in sugarcane fields in Brazil. Most commercial sugarcane varieties are genetically resistant to most sugarcane diseases. In addition to genetic resistance, use of pathogen-free planting material is commonly used to avoid spreading of diseases.

The Brazilian sugarcane industry does not usually control sugarcane diseases in commercial fields, but recently, coinciding with the first detection of the Orange rust Puccinia kuehnii in the country, the Agriculture Department has registered a product azoxystrobin and ketoconazole to control fungal disesases at sugarcane fields Santos, ; Agrofit, Additionally, the Triazole fungicides triadimefon and triadimenol are registered to treat sugarcane stalks before planting to prevent smut contamination caused by Ustilago scitaminea AGROFIT Sugarcane smut disease is also contolled by destroying contaminated plants in the field roguing when varieties having intermediate resistance to the pathogen are planted.

List of common diseases occurring at Brazilian sugarcane fields.

Introduction

Dinardo-Miranda a ; Dinardo-Miranda b ; Almeida Emerging data indicates that sugarcane could be the best crop for the production of renewable energy, which could reduce some effects of global warming caused by the use of fossil fuels Buckeridge, The impact of sugarcane on the environment might be reduced by adopting environmentally friendly agricultural practices such as the elimination of burning before harvest, modifying other practices for a reduction in diesel-driven transportation and a reduction in the use of oil-based fertilizers Ometto et al.

During this period, sugarcane expansion occurred in areas that were originally covered with Atlantic Rain Forest, but which were already being used for pastures and annual crops. The current rapid expansion of sugarcane into new areas that have never been used to grow the crop raises questions about sustainability, particularly in those areas of the cerrado biome that are already threatened by the expansion of other crops Rodrigues and Ortiz, This recent concern about the potential environmental impacts of crops has encouraged government agencies to promote studies to establish zones for planting sugarcane and to regulate how expansion will take place to avoid expansion into protected areas.

This zoning proposal was recently approved and will allow the Brazilian Government to use Climatic Risk Zoning as a tool for the establishment of a sustainable sugarcane agribusiness in the country Embrapa, Hitorically, the sugarcane has been burned prior to harvest as a means to facilitate and thus reduce the costs for harvest and hauling of cane, whether harvested by hand or by machine. In addition, burning of the crop generally increased recovery of the sucrose contained in the plant. This protocol established several environmental principles and technical guidelines to be observed by the sugarcane industry.

As a result of continuous breeding and selection for agronomic traits of value, sugarcane has lost the competitiveness or invasiveness of the original species; modern cultivars have largely lost the ability to persist in non-agricultural habitats and only poorly perpetuate without human assistance Holm et al. Sugarcane hybrid cultivars do not possess true rhizomes or produce vigorous seedlings.

It is possible to find leftover stools in cultivated areas, but there is no indication that these stools will perpetuate, and there is even less evidence that they have any invasive capacity. It is possible that if ratoons are not properly eradicated at the end of a cultivation cycle, they can regrow and become volunteer plants in the next crop. However, since the ratoons do not possess the ability to spread, they remain as isolated stools in the new crop. Some species from which modern sugarcane hybrids are derived are classified as weeds. It is important to emphasize that the rhizomatous nature of S.

The other species of the Saccharum complex S. Among other genera of the Saccharum complex Miscanthus , Narenga and Sclerostachia , only Miscanthus and Narenga represent species classified as having weed potential GCW, The genus Miscanthus contains five species that have been reported as having weed potential in some parts of the world: There are other Saccharum species, which are not involved in the origin of sugarcane hybrids, that have also been recorded as having weed potential in some parts of the world, including: After more than five centuries of sugarcane cultivation in Brazil, there is no evidence that this crop presents any traits that favor persistence and invasibility and there is no evidence of dispersion outside of agricultural environments.

Commercial propagation is vegetative, and seedlings from breeding programs lack vigor. As stated previously, no species that were involved in the origin of sugarcane hybrids are native to Brazil, but some species of Saccharum did originate in this country. Among those species, only S. The plant is not consumed by cattle, thus allowing it to occupy areas that might otherwise be occupied by more desirable species. There are no reports of the presence of Narenga species in Brazil, but there have been reports of the introduction of Miscanthus species into the country for their ornamental potential Lorenzi and Sousa ; Bastos, Nothing is known about how these introduced species will behave in the Brazilian environment.

Although some of them are already recorded as weeds in other countries, there have been no reports of their occurrence as weeds in Brazil GCW, ; Lorenzi, Unlike most crops, modern sugarcane varieties are propagated vegetatively, and seeds are not disseminated in agricultural areas. As a consequence, the sexual reproduction of sugarcane has been inadequately studied; most information related to this field has come from breeders. There have been virtually no studies on the fertility and longevity of seeds produced in commercial fields or on their germination responses to environmental variables.

However, sugarcane breeders invest great effort to obtain and preserve germinability of seed produced in their breeding programs. If these seeds fall onto the ground and encounter high humidity conditions, they may germinate to produce new plants. However, due to heavy competition with the existing sugarcane, weeds, the actions of pathogenic agents and predators in the non- cultivated areas, or herbicides and weeding in the cultivated areas, these volunteer plants do not survive for long periods of time.

If ratoons are not properly eradicated, they can regrow in the next crop, behaving as a source of volunteer plants, but there has been no reported case of volunteers spreading throughout the field. However, to avoid the presence of volunteer plants, the application of herbicides during the eradication phase is highly recommended. Sugarcane has a long history of safe use as a food for humans and animal feed.

It is commercially cultivated for use as a source of sucrose. Its byproducts are commonly used as components of ruminant feeds: The syrup is also used as a sugar substitute in food. These products are practically free of any contamination by other organic molecules Leme Junior and Borges, Sucrose is a molecule with an extensive history of human consumption. It is consumed as a sweetener and energy source and is classified as non-toxic to humans, with an LD 50 in rats of Although consumption of standard doses of sucrose has always been considered safe, excessive oral consumption of sucrose may cause gastrointestinal problems.

While there is no evidence of a direct correlation between sucrose consumption and toxicity, many studies suggest that average consumption should be reduced due to a possible association with health problems such as cardiovascular diseases, type II diabetes, obesity and hypertension Howard and Wylie-Rosett, In addition, the relationship between sucrose consumption and an increased risk of developing dental cavities has been established Rugg-Gunn and Murray, ; Sreebny, The consumption of ethanol in alcoholic beverages may also be harmful to human health.

Ethanol is considered toxic to humans if it is consumed in high doses and inhalation for a long period of time may provoke coughing, respiratory insufficiency, dizziness and intoxication. Eye contact may cause severe irritation. The excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages causes damage to practically all organs, particularly the liver, kidneys and central nervous system. The acute effects of ethanol ingestion range from dizziness and intoxication to alcoholic coma and death.

Excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages during pregnancy is associated with the induction of fetal alcohol syndrome in the offspring and the occurrence of low weight and asphyxia at birth, among other problems Sigma-Aldrich, b. Sugarcane pollen, like that of many other plants, has allergenic potential and may cause immunological hypersensitivity in humans who come into contact with it through the respiratory tract. In an allergy skin test conducted in India by Chakraborty et al. The objective of industrial sugarcane processing is to obtain highly purified sugar and ethanol.

The process involves pressing of the sugarcane to obtain juice, which goes through several phases of purification and concentration, followed by crystallization in the case of sugar production or fermentation and distillation in the case of ethanol production. Sucrose and ethanol, which are pure and chemically defined substances, are obtained at the conclusion of both processes.

The byproducts are vinasse also called vinhoto and bagasse biomass. Ethanol Ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, is a flammable liquid substance that is obtained through the distillation of fermented sugars. The main substrate for ethanol production from sugarcane is the sucrose contained in the juice.

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This product may be used directly as transportation fuel or may be dehydrated, generating anhydrous ethanol. According to Brazilian Law No. Sugar The raw sugar obtained directly from sugarcane processing consists of Refined white sugar is obtained by dissolving raw sugar and removing the insoluble material and natural colorants through physical processes Quast, After this additional purification step, the sucrose content of refined white sugar reaches In some countries of the European Union, Australia, Mexico, Canada, the United States and Japan, sugar produced from glyphosate and gluphosinate resistant, genetically modified sugarbeets has already been approved for human consumption.

In those cases, the composition analysis of the sugarbeet roots detected negligible amount of total protein and the analysis of refined sugar were not able to detect heterologous protein at the final product CERA Vinasse Vinasse is a residue of industrial sugarcane processing that consists of suspended solids and organic and mineral substances, mainly potassium Almeida, Orlando Filho presented options for the use of vinasse that include: Despite the potential diversity of uses, vinasse is almost solely used in Brazil as a fertilizer in fields surrounding ethanol-producing mills.

Filter cake Filter cake is a byproduct of industrial sugarcane processing that is obtained from the rotation filters after residual sucrose is extracted from the sugar production leftover sludge. Filter cake composition is variable, but in general, the residue is rich in minerals nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur and organic matter, mainly proteins and lipids. This residue is commonly used as a fertilizer or in animal feed Nardin, ; Diaz et al. Biomass The bagasse obtained after sugarcane pressing consists of lignocellulosic biomass.

In the mills, this byproduct of sugarcane processing is burned to generate energy Copersucar, Currently, this process is so efficient that mills generate excess electric energy that is added to the grid, providing electrical energy to nearby cities, especially during the dry season, when hydroelectric plants have difficulty in operating at full capacity due to the low water levels in rivers. Bagasse may also be used as a raw material for ethanol production through acid or enzymatic hydrolysis, where cellulose and hemicellulose fractions can be converted into hexoses and pentoses.

After a purification process, the mixture can be fermented to produce ethanol. However, this technology is still under development, and its economic feasibility has yet to be proven. According to a survey conducted by Martinelli et al. Rapadura, muscovado sugar, and sugarcane syrup are the main products of the artisanal sugarcane production system. These speciality products are produced on small farms that are characterized by their low technology levels and intensive use of labor.

Since there is little boutique market integration, these products are sold in local markets, and their processing is simplified, as shown in Fig. Rapadura Jaggery Rapadura is the Portuguese word for jaggery, a concentrated product of sugarcane juice without the separation of molasses from the crystals whose color can vary from golden to dark brown. It is a whole, unrefined sweetener that can be used in the same way as sugar with the additional flavor of molasses.

The consumption of this product is concentrated in the rural areas of Brazil, mostly in the northeastern region where it is considered part of the cultural identity of the northeastern population Coutinho, Data collected by FAO Borray, showed that jaggery is produced in approximately 30 countries. Muscovado Sugar Muscovado sugar production is similar to that of jaggery but with a process to achieve higher concentrations of soluble solids Fig. Thus, the muscovado sugar market has shrunk with a threat to the continuity of its production.

The vitamin content is not significant, snce vitamins are destroyed by heat Chaves et al. It is an excellent source of energy and minerals, and because of its high iron level, it is considered an anti-anemic product. It has many uses in human diets depending on the region of Brazil in which it is being used Chaves et al. Unprocessed sugarcane is used as human food and animal feed. As a food item, sugarcane may be consumed in natura or as juice garapa. In natura consumption is common in Brazilian rural areas, but juice consumption is much more common.

Sugarcane juice is a nutritious energy drink that is very popular in Brazil where it is consumed by people of all ages and social strata, especially during the summer. The juice is extracted in electric or manual presses, sieved and served with ice, either pure or mixed with fruit juice Lubatti, ; Soccol et al. Because this is an almost entirely informal activity, there is virtually no literature or reliable statistics on the sugarcane juice market Oliveira, Due to its high fiber content, sugarcane bagasse has been used as part of ruminant feed.

Although its digestibility is low approx. In natura sugarcane is an economically feasible alternative to forage especially during the drought season, when pastures are not sufficient to feed herds Embrapa Gado de Leite, Biopolymers are polymeric-based materials that are structurally classified as polysaccharides, polyesters and polyamides. The basic raw material for production is a source of renewable carbon. According to Pradella , of all raw materials that are available for biopolymer production, sugarcane has one of the best profiles as a carbon source.

The lignocellulosic fiber content of bagasse give sugarcane a unique competitive advantage compared to other carbon sources since bagasse may also be used to generate the energy used in biopolymer production. The sugarcane genome is among the most complex of cultivated crops. In the late s, in situ hybridization studies helped clarify how the sugarcane genome is organized. Methods for the genetic transformation of sugarcane were reported decades ago. Transformed plants were produced through particle bombardment biolistics of cell suspensions and embryogenic calli Bower and Birch, Later, Arencibia et al.

Gallo-Meagher and Irvine described the development of plants of the commercial cultivar NCo containing the bar gene, which was transformed through biolistics. Currently, many studies have demonstrated Agrobacterium-- mediated and particle bombardment transformation of sugarcane with sufficient efficiency to produce commercial varieties Bower and Birch, ; Birch and Maretzki ; Bower et al. Additionaly, several genes of commercial interest have been introduced into sugarcane by genetic transformation, conferring herbicide tolerance, resistance to diseases and pests, tolerance to drought, increased sucrose content, and improvements in sugar quality and color Falco et al.

Sugarcane has also been transformed with genes with the intention of using the plant as a biofactory, producing high-value-added products such as bioplastics Lakshmanan et al. In Brazil, the National Biosafety Commission CTNBio has approved more than 40 applications to conduct field trials of genetically modified sugarcane that contain genes conferring higher sucrose content, herbicide tolerance, insect resistance and drought tolerance.

Field trials have also been conducted or are ongoing in South Africa, Australia and the United States. These trials will almost certainly result in biotechnology products. At present, however, transgenic sugarcane cultivars have not been commercially released in Brazil, or elsewhere in the world. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author s and source are credited.

Fernando de Castro Reinach, Email: National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Feb Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Oct 6; Accepted Jan This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Global interest in sugarcane has increased significantly in recent years due to its economic impact on sustainable energy production. Biosafety, Ethanol, Biofuel, Saccharum , Sugarcane. Introduction Economic interest in sugarcane has increased significantly in recent years due to the increased worldwide demand for sustainable energy production.

Economic Importance The sugarcane crop has been relevant to the Brazilian economy since the beginning of the 16th century. Open in a separate window. Sugarcane production in regions of Brazil Source: Classification and Nomenclature The genus Saccharum was first described by Linnaeus in his book Species Plantarum. Saccharum villosum; Saccharum asperum New World and others.

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Boletin del Museo Nacional, 5 1: Parasitoid Population Biology ed. Foraging behaviour at the fourth trophic level: Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, The occurrence and phylogenetic implications of the ovipositor clip within the Figitidae Insecta: Journal of Natural History, 41 Advanced techniques for imaging microhymenoptera. Journal of Hymenoptera Research, 17 1: A world revision of the Pycnostigminae Cynipoidea: Figitidae with descriptions of seven new species. The phylogeny and evolution of Figitidae Hymenoptera: Divergence estimates and early evolutionary history of Figitidae Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea, Cynipoidea et Ceraphronoidea.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. Control of a primary parasite of the greenbug with a secondary parasite in greenhouse screening for plant resistance. Journal of Economic Ecology, On some new or little known British Hymenoptera. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, Descriptions of sixteen new species of parasitic Cynipidae, chiefly from Scotland. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, 16 4: Notes on Tenthredinidae and Cynipidae. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, The faun of Scotland, with special referenctasche to Clydesdale and the western district.

Proccedings of the Natural History Society of Glasgow, 3: On some new or little known British parasitic Cynipidae. On the British species of Allotrinae, with descriptions of other new species of parasitic Cynipidae. Memoirs of Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 2: A monograph of the British phytophagous Hymenoptera, Vol. Ray Society, London, pp. On new species of parasitic Cynipidae captured by Mr. Alloxystinae Hymenoptera, Cynipoidea, Charipidae in Australia. Invertebrate Taxonomy, 6 3: Charipidae described by A.

Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, Aphididae and associated biota from the kingdom of Tonga, with respect to biological control. Pan-Pacific Entomologist, 69 3: Carver Alloxystinae…in Australia. Chemical signals associated with life inhibit necrophoresis in Argentine ants. Molecular markers for identification of the hyperparasitoids Dendrocerus carpenteri and Alloxysta xanthopsis in Lysiphlebus testaceipes parasitizing ereal aphids.

Pattern and influencing factors or emergence in Diaretiella rapae and its parasites. Zeitschrift fuer Angewandte Entomologie, 85 4: A comparative study of the searching efficiencies of a parasite and a hyperparasite. Researches on population ecology, Neotropical entomology, 31 2: British entomology; being illustrations and descriptions of the genera of insects found in Great Britain and Ireland: Englemann, Lipsiae, pp.

Wytsman, Genera Insectorum, Vol. Gastral exocrine products of a myrmicine ant strongly overlap pygidial gland products of Dolichoderinae. Librairie Paul Klincksieck, Paris, pp. Aphididae , em culturas de couve.

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Neue Cynipiden aus den Miederlanden. Natuurhistorisch Maandblad Maastrich, Multitrophic effects of herbivore-induced plant volatiles in an evolutionary context. The parasites and predators of potatoe aphids. Studies on Cynipidae Alloxystinae. The identity of some species associated with aphids of economic importance. Studies on Cynipidae Alloxystinae 4. Alloxysta macrophadna Hartig, and Alloxysta brassicae Ashmead, Studies on Cynipidae Alloxystinae 5. Alloxysta citripes Thomson and Alloxysta ligustri n. Phaenoglyphis villosa Hartig and Alloxysta arcuata Kieffer. Studies on Cynipidae Alloxystinae 7.

Cynipidae Alloxystinae and Charipinae. Kieffer, avec synonymes nouveaux et un nomen novum. Bulletin et Annales de la Societe Royale Belge, Studies on Alloxystidae Hymenoptera, Cynipoidea 8. Cynips minuta Zetterstedt and Xystus minutus Hartig. The impact of Aphidius rhopalosiphi Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae on populations of the rose grain aphid Metopophium dirhodum Hemiptera: Aphididae on cereals in Canterbury, New Sealand. The diversity of the parasitoids in some colonies of Aphids Homoptera: Aphididae installed on grassy plants.

Species of parasitoids that control the populations of aphids Homoptera: Aphididae from som orchards of Iasi and Vaslui counties. Charipidae, Ibaliidae and Figitidae Hymenoptera: Handbook of Identification British Insects, 8 1c: Zoological Studies, 50 2: Figitidae from Costa Rica, with description of four new species. Neotropical Entomology, 40 6: Taxonomic and synonymic world catalogue of the Charipinae and notes about this subfamily Hymenoptera: Revision of the type material of Ionescu collection related to Charipinae subfamily Hymenoptera: Zoosystematica Rossica, 21 2: Taxonomic revision of the Alloxysta brevis group Cynipoidea: Australian Journal of Entomology, African Entomology, 20 2: Charipinos de Colombia Hymenoptera: Estado actual del conocimiento de los charipinos Hymenoptera: Revision of Charipinae Hymenoptera: Figitidae from Madeira and first record of Alloxysta from Portugal.

Boletim do Museu Municipal do Funchal, 62 Figitidae from Asia, with description of eleven new species. The Alloxysta type material Hym. The Canadian Entomologist, 6: European Jounal of Taxonomy, Revision of Apocharips Fergusson Hymenopterza: Charipinae with description of three new species from Colombia. Revision of Alloxysta from the north-western Balkan Peninsula with description of two new species Hymenoptera: Acta Entomologica Musei Nationalis Pragae, 53 1: A contribution to the knowledge of Charipinae Hymenoptera: Figitidae associated with aphids from Iran, including new records.

North-Western Journal of Zoology, 9 1: Revision of Curtis collection of Alloxysta Hymenoptera: Charipinae deposited in National Museum of Victoria Australia. Memoirs of Museum Victoria, Revision of Charipinae fauna Hymenoptera: Figitidae from the Corcega Island. Revision of the Charipinae Hymenoptera: Figitidae present in the Neotropical region. Revista Brasileira de Entomologia, 57 3: A review of Alloxysta species Hymenoptera: African Entomology, 21 2: Sixth report on the noxious and other insects of the state of New York.

Handbooks for the identification of British insects, 11 4: Phylogeny of the Eucoilinae Hymenoptera: Preliminary data on comparative abundance and diversity of eucoilines Hymenoptera: Eucoilinae from temperate and tropical areas. International Society of Hymenopterists. Identification key to European genera of Eucoilinae Hymenoptera: Quasimodoana, a new Holarctic genus of eucoline wasps Hymenoptera, Cynipoidea, Figitidae , with a phylogenetic analysis of related genera.

Verhandlungen der Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Experimental work with the peach aphis. Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, Checklist of charipines of Hungary Hymenoptera, Figitidae: Folia Entomologica Hungarica, Rates os species introduction to a remote oceanic island. Proceedings of the Royal Society. London Biological Science, Description de deux especes nouvelles, Trioxys placidus Hym.: Braconidae et Alloxysta gautieri J.

Some pro- and mesothoracic characters important for phylogenetic analysis of Hymenoptera, with a review of terms used for structures. Verhandllungen der kaiserlich-kongiglichen zoologish-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Brisbane, Australia, 6 pp. Hymenoptera, Thysanoptera; nova Australiensis.

Brisbane, Australia, 2 pp. Microhymenoptera Australiensis nova, mostly Chalcididae. Wright and Baker, Sydney, Australia, 2 pp. Chromosomes of Phaenoglyphis villosa Hartig, Hymenoptera: Russian Entomolological Journal, 13 4: The phenomenon of insect hyperparasitism and its taxonomic occurrence in the Insecta. Pages in D. The role of hyperparasitism in biological control: Biology and host selection behaviour of the aphid hyperparasitoids Alloxysta victrix in association with the primary parasitoid Aphidius colemani and the host aphid Myzus persicae. Journal of Insect Behaviour, Differences in behavioral responses of Sitobionn avenae Hemiptera: Aphididae to volatile compounds, following parasitism by Aphidius ervi Hymenopteta: Studies on host selection and host specificity of the aphid hyperparasite Charips victrix Hymenoptera: The bionomics of Charips victrix.

Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 63 5: Seasonal fluctuations of population density of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. A glossary of surfaces sculpturing. Ueber die Familie der Gallwespen. Erster nachtrag zur naturgeschichte der Gallwespen. Annual Review of Entomology, Chemical cues mediating aphid location by natural enemies. European Journal of Entomology, On the bionomics and post-embryonic development of certain cynipid hyperparasites of aphides.

Quarterly Journal of Microbiology Science, Nyt Magazine Naturvidenskaberne, Deutsch Entomologische Zeitschrift, Bietrage zur kenntnis der Cynipiden, Hym. Neue und wenig bekannte Cynipiden aus dem unt Bemerkungen uber eine andere Arten. Zur Kenntnis der Cynipiden-fauna Islands. Fauna norvegica, Serie B, The relationship between primary parasitoids and hyperparasitoids of cereal aphids- an analysis of field data. Enemy-induced dispersal in a parasitic wasp. Vegetational complexity and parasitism of green peach aphids Myzus persicae Sulzer Homoptera: Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 92 1: Parasitism of cabbage aphid and green peach aphid Homoptera: Aphididae on collards in relation to weed management.

Environmental Entomology, 17 2: Mandibular gland secretions in alloxystine wasp Hymenoptera, Cynipoidea, Charipidae: Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, The life history of a new cynipid fly, Kleidotoma japonica, n. On the life-histories and economic status of certain cynipid parasites of dipterous larvae, with descriptions some new larval forms. Annals of Applied Biology, Description de quelques Cynipides nouveaus ou peu connus et de deux de leurs parasites Hymenopteres. Les Cynipides part 2. Beschreibung neuer parasitischer Cynipiden aus Zentral-und-Nord-America.

Entomologische Zeitschrift Stuttgart, Annals of the Institute of Social Science, Beschreibung neuer in Blattlausen schmartozender Cynipiden.