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Responses were categorized as valid if, and only if, the RT measured at the beginning of the target was not shorter than ms, and not longer than 1, ms. The upper limit, 1, ms, was chosen because, keeping in mind that no targets corresponded to the sentence final syllable, it corresponds to the smallest duration between the end of the target and the end of the sentence. The application of this criterion led to the exclusion of all the data from 17 participants and all the data from five sentences.

Mean RT and standard deviations were then calculated on kept data. RTs deviating from the mean by two or more standard deviations were removed from the data set. A logarithmic transformation ln was applied to the RTs to normalize the data. Age, with four levels 7 years, 8 years, 9 years, 10 years , and Target Position, with two levels Beginning, End , and one within-subject factor Condition, with three levels Slow speech, Sung, Prosody. Post-hoc comparisons revealed that the Slow speech condition differed significantly from both the Prosody and Sung conditions.

Mean RTs in the three conditions as a function of Age are reported in Figure 2a for word targets located at the beginning of sentences, and in Figure 2b for word targets located at the end of sentences. Mean logarithmic reaction time [log RT ] in Sung black bars , Prosody grey bars and Slow Speech white bars conditions for children aged 7, 8, 9, and 10 years for a. Error bars represent standard errors of mean. The first result of this experiment was that word detection in sung or slowly spoken sentences was difficult for 7- to year olds. The percentage of valid responses was much lower than expected, leading us to exclude a large part of the responses The percentage of correct responses in the present experiment was also lower than in comparable studies by Montgomery ; Montgomery et al.

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A number of factors may have contributed to the greater level of difficulty of the word detection task in the present study. Firstly, whereas we used a mix of sung and spoken sentences, Montgomery used spoken sentences only. Secondly, the children determined the duration of the pause between conditions and some of them may have overestimated their detection abilities, so that they could have benefited from a longer pause. Notwithstanding the high rate of invalid responses, the task seemed easier for older children, since RTs showed a gradual decrease between 7 and 9 years. These findings are in agreement with those reported in similar experiments conducted with English-speaking children Montgomery, , ; Montgomery et al.

Contrary to our expectations, all age groups detected the word targets faster in the Slow speech condition than in both the Prosody and the Sung conditions. A difference in pitch saliency across conditions could not account for the better performance in the Slow speech condition, since differences in semi-tones between the target word and the preceding syllable were strictly identical in the Prosody condition, and these differences were not significantly different from those in the Sung condition.

A possible interpretation for the different RTs found in the Slow speech condition is that, in each trial, children were instructed to first listen to a spoken syllable before they had to detect it in a sentence. The words they heard before they had to detect them were thus acoustically more similar than in the other two conditions because the target words were spoken rather than sung.

Alternatively, although they were not instructed to do so, it is possible that some children repeated silently or memorized an abstract representation of the word they had to detect. In the latter case, the representation of the monosyllabic word in their inner speech was likely more similar in terms of acoustic features to the word they have to detect in the Slow speech condition than in the other two conditions. Finally, level of exposure could account for the results found in the Slow speech condition.

Indeed, children are intensively exposed to speech from birth, most likely less exposed to songs, and even less to the type of speech in the Prosody condition. Another surprising finding was the absence of a difference between the Prosody and the Sung condition. The melody in the Prosody condition did not respect the rules of Western musical harmony and thus, following the results of Schellenberg et al. Note, however, that Schellenberg et al. If melodic expectations apply only to the last position of a musical sequence, this could explain why the detection of words was not facilitated in the Sung condition.

The linguistic context effect was confirmed in that shorter RTs were found in the End than in the Beginning position, irrespective of the condition. This finding is congruent with that of previous work Montgomery, ; Montgomery et al. However, this position effect could also be the result of the characteristics of our experimental setting. Namely, children were instructed that a target word would be present in each trial, and may, thus, have progressively increased their attention, which would be maximal at the end of the sentence.

This greater attention at the end of sentences may have resulted in shorter RTs for target words in the End sentence positions than in the Beginning sentence positions. To summarize, the analysis of RTs on valid responses indicated that older 9- and years old children detected target words faster than the younger children 7- and 8-years olds. It also showed that word detection was faster in the spoken condition i. We can speculate that the Slow speech condition was easier because all children have been more exposed to spoken than to sung speech.

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However, because the duration of the phonemes and syllables was equalized across the three conditions, although less artificial than in the other two conditions, the speech in the Slow speech condition remained unnatural, preventing us from drawing firm conclusions about exposure. A second problem with the paradigm in Experiment 1 was that the criterion for the validity of the responses was based on speed, not on accuracy. However, this constraint can raise problems in testing children with learning disabilities. Experiment 2 aimed to correct these two flaws.

The second experiment had five main objectives: From the results of Experiment 1, we hypothesized that performance would increase with age. With respect to the difference between the Slow speech and Natural speech conditions, two hypotheses can be posited: As in Experiment 1, we predicted a better performance for word targets located in the End position due to the linguistic context effect.

Moreover, the modifications brought to the experimental paradigm might contribute to also reveal a melodic context effect, namely, a better accuracy in the Sung than in the Prosody condition. For further comparison of results in Experiment 3, the children were subdivided into two groups: They were recruited in four different schools in Reims and in Lille France. The selection criteria were the same as in Experiment 1.

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The stimuli set was identical to the one used in Experiment 1. Slow speech, Sung, and Prosody, to which we added a fourth condition, the Natural speech condition. In this Natural speech condition, sentences were uttered by the professional singer using his natural way of speaking. Sentences in this fourth condition were not acoustically modified and, thus, included the prosodic variations found in normal speech Appendix F.

Target and foil syllables were identical to those used in Experiment 1.

The procedure was identical to Experiment 1 except that in each trial, the child first heard a word that could either be present or absent in the sentence. The stimulus sentence was presented 1, ms after hearing the target word, and a picture of a red and a green smiley face appeared on the screen ms after the end of the sentence.

The next trial did not begin until the participant responded. Responses were recorded with E-prime 2 software Psychology Software Tools. Each testing session began with three practice trials. In order to shorten the duration of the task and to avoid learning effects, each child was tested in the four conditions but in two sessions separated by one week. Words that were present in sentences in one condition were not present in the other one.

Sentences were divided into three blocks each followed by a few minutes pause, the duration of which was determined by the participant. The approximate duration of testing was 15 min per session. In order to allow the comparison with results of Experiment 1, and to keep only the children who performed above chance level, we calculated individual percentages of correct responses CR.

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In the subsequent analyses of variance, the percentage of Hits minus False Alarms FAs , an unbiased accuracy score, was used as the dependent variable. Error bars represent standard errors of the mean. As predicted, the percentage of Hits minus FAs increased with age, which confirmed a progressive improvement in word detection accuracy. The abilities in word detection, thus, appeared to improve until pre-adolescence. Contrary to our predictions and to results from Experiment 1, no effect of condition was found.

Accuracy in word detection was, thus, not influenced by the duration of the syllables since accuracy in the Natural speech condition did not differ from that in the three other conditions, all of which included syllables with longer durations. Contrary to both the findings in Experiment 1, and the predictions based on the linguistic context effect, we found a position effect in the opposite direction: Children were more accurate for word targets in the Beginning than in the End positions. This apparent discrepancy may stem from procedural differences between the two tasks.

In Experiment 1, the children were requested to press a button as quickly as possible when they detected the word. In Experiment 2, the children had to decide whether or not the target word was present in the sentence by pressing the Yes or the No button, without any time constraint.

Both requirements and expectations, thus, differed in the two tasks with respect to the position of the target within the sentence. In Experiment 1, expectations were certainly higher at the end than at the beginning of the sentence because children were told that each sentence contained a target, and that their task was to detect it as quickly as possible. Thus, it is possible that a higher level of expectation led to shorter RTs. In Experiment 2, the detection of target words located at the end of sentences may have required more sustained attention to keep the target in short-term memory compared to the detection of targets located at the beginning of sentences.

Thus, the task may have been less demanding when the target was located at the beginning rather than at the end of sentences. To summarize, analysis of word detection accuracy indicated that older children aged 10 to 12 years detected more words than younger children aged 7 to 9 years, whether the sentences were spoken slow speech or natural speech or sung in the original melodic score or in a nonmelodic score extracted from speech prosody.

Both young and older children detected words better at the beginning than at the end of sentences. An important objective of Experiment 2 was to modify the paradigm so as to increase the percentage of valid responses. The findings in Experiment 2 showed that children from 7 to 12 years were able to perform the task, and that the modified paradigm is suitable for testing in children with language deficits.

The objective of Experiment 3 was to investigate whether children with SLI would detect words with a longer duration better than words spoken at a normal rate of speech. Additionally, we wished to investigate whether there was an impact of melodic context on word detection. A significant age effect was found in both Experiments 1 and 2, revealing that older children detected words more quickly and accurately than younger children. Abilities in word detection, thus, appear to improve with language development. More specifically, older children with SLI 10 to 12 years should perform inferior to age-matched children with TLD but not different to younger children 7 to 9 years with TLD.

In addition, the performance of young children with SLI 7 to 9 years should be inferior to that of age matched children with TLD. Results of Experiment 2 showed no effect of condition on word detection accuracy for children with TLD. As we were using the same paradigm, no condition effect was predicted for children with TLD in Experiment 3. As for the population of children with SLI, previous studies have used normal speech rate only, precluding specific hypotheses on the effect of condition.

We could nonetheless predict that words with longer syllable durations sung or slow speech would be more easily detected than words spoken at a normal rate of speech. Finally, we predicted to also find a position effect in both children with TLD and children with SLI, with better accuracy on targets located at the beginning than at the end of sentences.

As in Experiment 2, the 16 children were divided into two groups: They suffered from deficits affecting either expressive or receptive language, or both, with different levels of severity see Table 2.

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The details of the tests are presented in Appendix E. None of the children in the TLD group had a history of language disorder, as reported by their parents. No children in either group had received musical training, and had no reported auditory, physiological, or neurological problems. All participants received a short hearing screen using an audiometer.

Sounds were presented to the left and the right ear at a range of frequencies , , , , 2,, 4, Hz , and all participants were sensitive to sounds within the 20 dB HL range. For the word detection task, the stimuli and procedure were similar to Experiment 2. Furthermore, post-hoc comparisons with Holm-Bonferroni corrections did not reveal a significant difference between Hits FA percentages for older children in the SLI group and younger children in the TLD group. In the SLI group, scores in word detection in the four conditions Slow speech, Natural speech, Sung and Prosody conditions were positively and significantly correlated with scores in metaphonological tasks: As predicted, the scores of older children with SLI were close to the scores of the younger children with TLD, which supports findings of a two-year delay in language development.

The absence of an age effect in the children with TLD, contrary to findings in Experiment 2, may be accounted for by the smaller group size in Experiment 3. The size of the group evidently did not influence the emergence of a group effect in children with SLI to the same extent because the mean score of young children with SLI was lower This was not the case for the older children with SLI who obtained scores close to those of the young children with TLD in both Experiments. The position effect found in Experiment 2 was replicated in Experiment 3, in both children with TLD and children with SLI, without an interaction with age.

To summarize, the two subgroups of children with SLI showed impairments in word detection compared to children with TLD, although groups were matched for sex, chronological age, and non-verbal IQ scores. There was no effect of condition, however. Even the group of young children with SLI, who obtained the lowest scores, did not benefit from words with a longer duration Slow speech condition or words that were sung Sung and Prosody conditions compared with words spoken at a natural rate of speech Natural speech condition.

Results of both Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that word detection abilities seem to show a progressive development and are not yet at ceiling levels at 12 years of age. Findings from Experiment 3 indicate that the development of these abilities in children with SLI is delayed, and these abilities continue to develop with an even steeper slope. This study aimed to assess the development of word detection abilities in children aged 7 to 12 years with TLD and SLI.

Based on the facilitation effect documented in the literature, we hypothesized that word detection would be easier in sung than in spoken sentences. In order to single out one acoustic difference between spoken and sung sentences, we created conditions in which the sung and the spoken sentences were equated for syllable durations and pitch variations.

The sole difference between the two sentence types Sung and Slow speech conditions was that pitch variations in the sung sentences followed the harmony rules of Western music, whereas those in the spoken sentences did not. We failed to find any advantage of sung over spoken sentences, either in the group of children with TLD, or the group of children with SLI.

Moreover, no facilitation effect was found when we compared the conditions located at the two extremities of the continuum from spoken to sung sentences—that is, sentences spoken at a natural rate of speech characterized by short syllable durations and large pitch variations to sung sentences characterized by long syllable durations and small pitch variations. This null effect cannot be attributed to a ceiling or a floor effect either because the performance improved with age in all three groups of children with TLD, as well as in the group of children with SLI.

We interpreted this effect to be a strong indication that both groups understood the task and performed it in a similar way.

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Age was also found to have a consistent effect in both the TLD group and SLI groups, which indicates that word detection abilities slowly progressed from 7 to 12 years. The scores of the older children in the SLI group were at the level of the scores of the younger children in the TLD group. Moreover, their scores in word detection were correlated with their scores in metaphonological tasks.

Another interesting consideration concerns the influence of rhythm. Our primary focus was to determine the effect of pitch and melody on word detection, and, as such, we specifically isolated and manipulated this pitch dimension. While this method is certainly not without merit and it is important to understand the relative contributions of different musical dimensions, our results may be explained by the fact that syllables were produced in an isochronous manner across Sung, Prosody, and Slow speech conditions. In this case, it seems likely that syllables in the same sentence over these three conditions had more similar syllable durations, and may, thus, have contributed to the results.

The fact that syllable duration was indeed significantly more variable in the Natural speech condition compared to the other three conditions supports the idea that variability of syllable durations may contribute to speech processing. Thus, it may be the case that melodic context alone in the Sung and Prosody conditions was not sufficient to impact on word detection, and temporal cues may have strengthened pitch cues. The beneficial effect of musical metrical cues on sentence perception has also been shown in native French-speaking children with SLI, dyslexia Przybylski et al.

We can, therefore, propose that the presence of durational segmentation cues in the Sung and Prosody conditions might have resulted in greater word detection abilities.

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In particular, we note that their word detection skills were significantly correlated with their performance on tests of metaphonological awareness. Overall, we found no effect of the isolated musical dimension—pitch variations—on language processing, but future studies may investigate the effect of other musical dimensions. Namely, the absence of a benefit of pitch in word processing may be due to an impaired musical processing in children with SLI.

This also raises questions about the pitch processing abilities of these children, although these results could also reflect the sensitivity of our paradigm. Further investigations by our team, thus, aim to document the development of musical abilities in children with SLI. The authors are grateful to the children that made this study possible, and to Diana Omigie for her helpful assistance.

National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Adv Cogn Psychol v. Published online Dec Nia Cason 1 Neuropsychology: Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Jun 2; Accepted Jun This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Introduction Language and music perception abilities develop in early infancy. Method Participants Sixty-nine children 39 girls and 30 boys aged 7 to 10 years were recruited in three different schools in Reims and in Lille France to participate in this study. Open in a separate window. Sentence Stimuli Characteristics for Experiments 1, 2, and 3.

Procedure Each participant wearing headphones Sennheiser HD was seated in a quiet room in front of a computer Dell-Latitude Results Data analysis In order to determine whether a response was valid or not, we had to verify that the child did not press the space bar before the target word occurred in the sentence. Discussion The first result of this experiment was that word detection in sung or slowly spoken sentences was difficult for 7- to year olds. Stimuli The stimuli set was identical to the one used in Experiment 1.

Procedure The procedure was identical to Experiment 1 except that in each trial, the child first heard a word that could either be present or absent in the sentence. Results In order to allow the comparison with results of Experiment 1, and to keep only the children who performed above chance level, we calculated individual percentages of correct responses CR.

Stimuli and procedure For the word detection task, the stimuli and procedure were similar to Experiment 2. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the children that made this study possible, and to Diana Omigie for her helpful assistance. Life and legend , Londres, , p. Zweite Auflage , Dessau, , p. Suddenly it was universally realized that he had been one of the most remarkeble men of his time: Life and Legend , Londres, , p. Zweite Auflage , Leipzig, , p. Der Philhellenismus und die Modernisierung in Griechenland und Deutschland: Symposium organisiert in Thessaloniki und Volos am 7.

Art and politics under the Restoration , New Haven etc, , p. Abendzeitung , , 24 juin , p. Mit einer biographischen Einleitung von Albert Zipper , Leipzig, [], p. Krahe, Der Fall von Missolunghi. Drama in 3 Akten. Frey bearbeitet nach der Geschichte des griechischen Freyheits-Krieges von , Munich, , p. Eduard Kneiff, Notis Botzaris ou la prise de Missolonghi. Frey bearbeitet nach der Geschichte des griechischen Freyheits-Krieges von , Munich, Der Fall von Missolunghi , Dresde et Leipzig, Art and politics under the Restoration , New Haven etc. Volume 2 , Londres, , p. Geschichte des neueren Griechenlandes seit der Zeit des Befreiungskrieges , Leipzig, , p.

Neueste Lieder der Griechen , Dessau, , p. Schweizerische Monatschronik , mai , p. Volume 2, Londres, , p. Ein Beitrag zur Genealogie der Kunstgeschichte im Jahrhundert Stendaler Winckelmann-Forschungen 2 , Ruhpolding, , p. Abendzeitung, , 24 juin , p. Da sanken sie gleich jenen Schreitern des Kreuzes beim Anblick der heiligen Stadt auf die Knie, und zu dem Gott der Gnade wendeten sie ihr stummes Morgengebet.

Der Fall von Missolunghi , Dresde et Leipzig, , p. Maria Verena Leistner u. Traduction de Sandrine Maufroy.