Syria: From the Ottoman Empire to the Rise of the Baath

The oldest remains found in Syria date from the Palaeolithic era c. The bones found in this massive cave were those of a Neanderthal child, estimated to have been about two years old, who lived in the Middle Palaeolithic era ca. Although many Neanderthal bones had been discovered already, this was practically the first time that an almost complete child's skeleton had been found in its original burial state.

Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth. Syria is part of the Fertile Crescent , and since approximately 10, BCE it was one of the centers of Neolithic culture PPNA where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world.

In the early Neolithic period, people used vessels made of stone, gyps and burnt lime. Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidence of early trade relations. The ruins of Ebla , near Idlib in northern Syria, were discovered and excavated in At its zenith, from about to BCE, it may have controlled an empire reaching north to Anatolia , east to Mesopotamia and south to Damascus.

Ebla traded with the Mesopotamian states of Sumer , Akkad and Assyria , as well as with peoples to the northwest. Scholars believe the language of Ebla was closely related to the fellow East Semitic Akkadian language of Mesopotamia [3] and to be among the oldest known written languages. The city re-emerged, as the part of the nation of the Northwest Semitic speaking Amorites , a few centuries later, and flourished through the early second millennium BCE until conquered by the Indo-European Hittites. When the Middle Assyrian Empire began to deteriorate in the late 11th century BCE, Canaanites and Phoenicians came to the fore and occupied the coast, and Arameans and Suteans supplanted the Amorites in the interior, as part of the general disruptions and exchanges associated with the Bronze Age Collapse and the Sea Peoples.

During this period the bulk of Syria became known as Eber Nari and Aramea. It is from this period that the name Syria first emerges, but not in relation to modern Syria , but as an Indo-European corruption of Assyria , which in fact encompassed the modern regions of northern Iraq, north east Syria, south east Turkey and the northwestern fringe of Iran.

After this empire finally collapsed, Mesopotamian dominance continued for a time with the short lived Neo-Babylonian Empire BCE , which ruled the region for 70 or so years. Due to Syria's location on the Eastern Mediterranean coast, its navy fleet, and abundant forests; Persians showed great interest in easing control while governing the region.

Thus, the indigenous Phoenicians paid a much lesser annual tribute which was only talent compared to Egypt's tribute of talents. Furthermore, Syrians were allowed to rule their own cities in that they continued to adhere their native religions, establish their own businesses, and build colonies all over the Mediterranean coast. Syria's satraps used to reside in Damascus , Sidon or Tripoli. Afterwards, he decided to launch an expedition towards Siwa Oasis and Carthage , but his efforts were in vain as Phoenicians refused to operate against their kindred.

The revolutions were heavily suppressed in that Sidon was burnt with its citizens. Persian dominion ended with the conquests of the Macedonian Greek king, Alexander the Great in BCE after the Battle of Issus which took place south of the ancient town Issus , close to the present-day Turkish town of Iskenderun. Syria was then incorporated into the Seleucid Empire by general Seleucus who started, with the Seleucid Kings after him, using the title of King of Syria.

The capital of this Empire founded in BCE was situated at Antioch , then a part of historical Syria, but just inside the Turkish border today as well.

A series of six wars, Syrian Wars , were fought between the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt , during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC over the region then called Coele-Syria , one of the few avenues into Egypt. These conflicts drained the material and manpower of both parties and led to their eventual destruction and conquest by Rome and Parthia. In 83 BC, after a bloody strife for the throne of Syria , governed by the Seleucids, the Syrians decided to choose Tigranes the Great , King of Armenia , as the protector of their kingdom and offered him the crown of Syria.

Antioch was the third largest city in the Roman Empire , after Rome and Alexandria , with an estimated population of , at its zenith, and being a commercial and cultural hub at the region for many centuries later. The largely Aramaic speaking population of Syria during the heyday of the empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Syria's large and prosperous population made it one of the most important Roman provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE.

Syria is significant in the history of Christianity ; Paul the Apostle was converted on the Road to Damascus and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch , from where he set off on many of his missionary journeys.

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During the Severan dynasty , Syrian nobles administered Rome and even rose to Imperial title, such as the matriarch of the family, Julia Domna , wife of Emperor Septimius Severus who was born in Emesa Homs and belonged to the prestigious Sampsiceramid Priest Kings of Emesa, alongside with her sister, Julia Maesa who resided with her in Rome alongside her two daughters and grandsons. After the ascension of Domna's two sons to the throne and their eventual death, the Severan dynasty was usurped by Macrinus , a prominent figure in Roman court and a Praetorian prefect.

Domna's sister, Julia Maesa returned to Emesa, taking her enormous wealth, and her two daughters and grandsons with her. Whatsoever, his reign lasted only a short 4 years, filled with sex scandals , eccentricity, decadence, and zealotry. Realizing that the popular support for the emperor was fading, Julia Maesa decided to replace him with her younger grandson, his cousin Severus Alexander , and convinced Elagabalus to name him as his heir and give him the title of Caesar , but after revoking his far more popular cousin of his titles and ranks, and reversing his consulships, the Praetorian guard cheered on Alexander, naming him emperor and slaying Elagabalus and his mother.

Severus Alexander's rule was longer, and unlike Elagabalus's disastrous rule, was filled with domestic achievements and he earned the popularity and respect of his people, something Elagabalus never had. He ruled for 13 years, before eventually losing the popularity he once had and being slain by the Legio XXII Primigenia. Another Emperor of Syrian origin was Philip the Arab , born in modern-day Shahba , he reigned from to His reign enjoyed relative stability, he maintained good relations with the senate, reaffirmed old Roman virtues and traditions, and started many building projects, most popularly in his hometown, renaming it Philippopolis, and raising it to civic status.

Whatsoever, the creation of a new city, alongside the massive tribute to the Persians, he had to raise taxes to high levels and stop paying subsidies to the tribes north of the Danube , which were essential to keeping the peace with them. Nonetheless, his reign ended shortly after Decius usurped the throne, killing Philip and emerging as the new emperor.

During the Roman-Sasanian war of the 3d century, the Romans, struggling in the early stages of the Crisis of the Third Century depended on Odaenathus , the King of the Syrian city-state of Palmyra to secure the Roman East from the Persian invaders and to regain lost Roman territories, so Odaenathus rode north leading the Palmyrene army , and regained Armenia, Northern Syria, parts of Asia Minor from the Persians, and even reached the Persian capital of Ctesiphon , thus weakening the Persians and securing the Roman East, before he was murdered by his own nephew, Maeonius. Years later, Palmyra rose in rebellion against the Roman Empire under the leadership of Zenobia , Odaenathus's widow and Queen Mother of Palmyra, who led her armies to conquer Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia and Lower Egypt in a series of campaigns in which she annexed almost the entire Roman east, all while the Roman Empire was struggling during the Crisis of the Third Century , ruled by incompetent emperors and torn apart by civil war.

Whatsoever, the Palmyrene Empire was short lived; once the Roman general Aurelian rose to power, he rode east, defeated Queen Zenobia in battle twice, and rode to Palmyra to reconquer it and subsequently sacked it around AD, which effectively put an end to Palmyrene civilization. With the decline of the empire in the west, Syria became part of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine , Empire in The province was subsequently divided into three, smaller provinces. Syria Prima, with the capital remaining at Antioch, and Syria Secunda, with its capital moving to Apamea on the Orontes , and the new province of Theodorias, with Laodice as its capital.

Syria remained one of the most important regions of the Byzantine Empire , and was of strategic importance, being occupied by the Sassanids between and , then recovered by the emperor Heraclius. Whatsoever, Byzantine rule in the region was lost to the Muslims after the battle of Yarmouk and the fall of Antioch.

In , Syria was conquered by the Muslim Arabs in the form of the Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al-Walid , resulting in the region becoming part of the Islamic empire.

History of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region

In the mid-7th century, the Umayyad dynasty , then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. Syria was divided into four districts: Damascus, Homs, Palestine and Jordan. The Islamic empire expanded rapidly and at its height stretched from Spain to India and parts of Central Asia ; thus Syria prospered economically, being the centre of the empire. There was complete toleration of Christians mostly ethnic Arameans and in the north east, Assyrians in this era and several held governmental posts.

In the mid-8th century, the Caliphate collapsed amid dynastic struggles, regional revolts and religious disputes. The Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in , who moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Arabic — made official under Umayyad rule — became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic in the Abbasid era.

For periods, Syria was ruled from Egypt, under the Tulunids , and then, after a period of anarchy, the Ikhshidids Northern Syria came under the Hamdanids of Aleppo. The court of Ali Saif al-Daula , 'Sword of the State,' was a center of culture, thanks to its nurturing of Arabic literature.

He resisted Byzantine efforts to reconquer Syria by skillful defensive tactics and counter-raids into Anatolia. After his death, the Byzantines captured Antioch and Aleppo Syria was then in turmoil as a battleground between the Hamdanids, Byzantines and Damascus-based Fatimids. The Byzantines had conquered all of Syria by , but the chaos continued for much of the 11th century as the Byzantines, Fatimids and Buyids of Baghdad engaged in a struggle for supremacy.

Syria was then conquered by the Seljuk Turks After a century of Seljuk rule, Syria was conquered by Saladin , founder of the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt. During the 12thth centuries, parts of Syria were held by Crusader states: The area was also threatened by Shi'a extremists known as Assassins Hassassin and in the Mongols briefly swept through Syria. The withdrawal of the main Mongol army prompted the Mamluks of Egypt to invade and conquer Syria. In addition to the sultanate's capital in Cairo , the Mamluk leader, Baibars , made Damascus a provincial capital, with the cities linked by a mail service that traveled by both horses and carrier pigeons.

The Mamluks eliminated the last of the Crusader footholds in Syria and repulsed several Mongol invasions. Many of the city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand. By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria. In , the Ottoman Empire conquered Syria.

Ottoman rule was not burdensome to the Syrians because the Turks, as Muslims, respected Arabic as the language of the Koran , and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus became the major entrepot for Mecca , and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the barakah spiritual force or blessing of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the hadj , the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Ottoman Turks reorganized Syria into one large province or eyalet. The eyalet was subdivided into several districts or sanjaks. In , Syria was reorganized into two eyalets; the Eyalet of Damascus and the new Eyalet of Aleppo.

In , the Eyalet of Raqqa was established in eastern Syria. Ottoman administration did not foster a peaceful co-existence amongst the different sections of Syrian society but Each religious minority — Shia Muslim, Greek Orthodox, Maronite, Armenian, and Jewish — constituted a millet. The religious heads of each community administered all personal status law and performed certain civil functions as well.

As part of the Tanzimat reforms , an Ottoman law passed in provided for a standard provincial administration throughout the empire with the Eyalets becoming smaller Vilayets governed by a Wali , or governor, still appointed by the Sultan but with new provincial assemblies participating in administration. The demographics of this area underwent a huge shift in the early part of the 20th century when Ottoman troops along with Kurdish detachments conducted ethnic cleansing of its Christian populations.

Some Circassian, Kurdish and Chechens tribes cooperated with the Ottoman authorities in the massacres of Armenian and Assyrian Christians in Upper Mesopotamia , between and , with further attacks on unarmed fleeing civilians conducted by local Arab militias. On 13 August , in a revenge attack, about Kurds from the Dakkuri, Milan, and Kiki tribes attacked the then predominantly Christian Amuda, [28] and burned the town. According to lieutenant Ronald Sempill Stafford, a large numbers of Assyrians and Armenians were killed. In , the Assyrian community of al-Malikiyah was subjected to a vicious assault.

Even though the assault failed, Assyrians were terrorized and left in large numbers, and the immigration of Kurds from Turkey to the area have resulted in a Kurdish majority in Amuda, al-Malikiyah, and al-Darbasiyah. The Christian population of the city crossed the border into Syria and settled in Qamishli , which was separated by the railway new border from Nusaybin. Nusaybin became Kurdish and Qamishli became a Syriac Christian city. Things soon changed, however, with the immigration of Kurds beginning in following the failure of the rebellion of Saeed Ali Naqshbandi against the Turkish authorities.

In , a short-lived dependent Kingdom of Syria was established under Emir Faisal I of the Hashemite dynasty, who later became the king of Iraq. However, his rule in Syria ended after only a few months following a clash between his Syrian Arab forces and French forces at the Battle of Maysalun. French troops took control of Syria and forced Faisal to flee.

Later that year the San Remo conference split up Faisal's kingdom by placing Syria-Lebanon under a French mandate, and Palestine under British control. Syria was divided into three autonomous regions by the French, with separate areas for the Alawis on the coast and the Druze in the south. Nationalist agitation against French rule led to Sultan al-Atrash leading a revolt that broke out in the Druze Mountain in and spread across the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. The revolt saw fierce battles between rebel and French forces in Damascus, Homs and Hama before it was suppressed in The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned.

He returned to Syria in and was met with a huge public reception. Elections were held in for a constituent assembly, which drafted a constitution for Syria. However, the French High Commissioner rejected the proposals, sparking nationalist protests. Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September France agreed to Syrian independence in principle although maintained French military and economic dominance. Hashim al-Atassi , who had been Prime Minister under King Faisal's brief reign, was the first president to be elected under a new constitution, effectively the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria.

However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. Syria proclaimed its independence again in , but it was not until 1 January that it was recognised as an independent republic. There were protests in over the slow pace of French withdrawal. The French responded to these protests with artillery. In an effort to stop the movement toward independence, French troops occupied the Syrian parliament in May and cut off Damascus's electricity. Training their guns on Damascus's old city, the French killed Syrians and destroyed hundreds of homes.

With continuing pressure from the British and Syrian nationalist groups the French were forced to evacuate the last of their troops in April , leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.

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Syria became independent on 17 April Syrian politics from independence through the late s were marked by upheaval. Between and , Syria had 20 different cabinets and drafted four separate constitutions. In , Syria was involved in the Arab—Israeli War , aligning with the other local Arab states who wanted to destroy the state of Israel.

An armistice was agreed in July A demilitarized zone under UN supervision was established; the status of these territories proved a stumbling-block for all future Syrian-Israeli negotiations. It was during this period that many Syrian Jews, who faced growing persecution and fled Syria as part of Jewish exodus from Arab countries. Husni al-Za'im , in what has been described as the first military overthrow of the Arab World [36] since the Second World War.

This was soon followed by another coup by Col. A Jabal al-Druze uprising was suppressed after extensive fighting — Growing discontent eventually led to another coup, in which Shishakli was overthrown in February Veteran nationalist Shukri al-Quwatli was president from until , but by then his post was largely ceremonial.

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Power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment, which had proved itself to be the only force capable of seizing and, perhaps, keeping power. In November , as a direct result of the Suez Crisis , [37] Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union , providing a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other military equipment being sent to Syria. On the other hand, Syria and the Soviet Union accused Turkey of massing its troops on the Syrian border.

Only heated debates in the United Nations of which Syria was an original member lessened the threat of war. In this context, the influence of Nasserism , Pan-Arab and anti-imperial ideologies created fertile ground for the idea of closer ties with Egypt. Two days later, Syria re-established itself as the Syrian Arab Republic.

Frequent coups, military revolts, civil disorders and bloody riots characterized the s. The 8 March coup , resulted in installation of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command NCRC , a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members; the moderate al-Bitar became premier. Under Jadid's rule, Syria aligned itself with the Soviet bloc and pursued hardline policies towards Israel [40] and "reactionary" Arab states especially Saudi Arabia, calling for the mobilization of a "people's war" against Zionism rather than inter-Arab military alliances.

Domestically, Jadid attempted a socialist transformation of Syrian society at forced pace, creating unrest and economical difficulties. Opponents of the government were harshly suppressed, while the Ba'ath Party replaced parliament as law-making body and other parties were banned. Public support for his government, such as it was, declined sharply following Syria's defeat in the Six-Day War , [41] when Israel destroyed much of Syria's air force and captured the Golan Heights.

Conflicts also arose over different interpretations of the legal status of the Demilitarized Zone. Israel maintained that it had sovereign rights over the zone, allowing the civilian use of farmland. Syria and the UN maintained that no party had sovereign rights over the zone. Syria claimed that the situation was the result of an Israeli aim to increase tension so as to justify large-scale aggression, and to expand its occupation of the Demilitarized Zone by liquidating the rights of Arab cultivators.

Conflict developed between right-wing army officers and the more moderate civilian wing of the Ba'ath Party. The retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the " Black September " hostilities with Jordan reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Ba'ath leadership. Upon assuming power, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control.

The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March , the party held its regional congress and elected a new member Regional Command headed by Assad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as President for a 7-year term. In March , to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Ba'ath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates.

In March , a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since After intense fighting, the Syrians were repulsed in the Golan Heights. The Israelis pushed deeper into Syrian territory, beyond the boundary. As a result, Israel continues to occupy the Golan Heights as part of the Israeli-occupied territories. In , the Syrian army intervened in the Lebanese civil war to ensure that the status quo was maintained, and the Maronite Christians remained in power.

This was the beginning of what turned out to be a thirty-year Syrian military occupation. Many crimes in Lebanon, including the accused assassinations of Rafik Hariri , Kamal Jumblat and Bachir Gemayel were attributed to the Syrian forces and intelligence services although were not proven to this day.

The following year, Israel invaded Lebanon and attacked the Syrian army, forcing it to withdraw from several areas. When Lebanon and Israel announced the end of hostilities in , Syrian forces remained in Lebanon. Through extensive use of proxy militias, Syria attempted to stop Israel from taking over southern Lebanon. Assad sent troops into Lebanon for a second time in to enforce a ceasefire in Beirut. The Syrian-sponsored Taif Agreement finally brought the Lebanese civil war to an end in However, the Syrian Army's presence in Lebanon continued until , exerting a strong influence over Lebanese politics.

The assassination of the popular former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, was blamed on Syria, and pressure was put on Syria to withdraw their forces from Lebanon. On 26 April the bulk of the Syrian forces withdrew from Lebanon [52] although some of its intelligence operatives remained, drawing further international rebuke.

About one million Syrian workers went to Lebanon after the war to find jobs in the reconstruction of the country. The government was not without its critics, though open dissent was repressed. A serious challenge arose in the late s, however, from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who rejected the secular values of the Ba'ath program and objected to rule by the Shia Alawis. After the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Muslim groups instigated uprisings and riots in Aleppo, Homs and Hama and attempted to assassinate Assad in In response, Assad began to stress Syria's adherence to Islam. The arch-conservative Muslim Brotherhood , centered in the city of Hama, was finally crushed in February when parts of the city were hit by artillery fire and leaving between 10, and 25, people, mostly civilians, dead or wounded see Hama massacre.

This led to improved relations with the US and other Arab states. Syria participated in the multilateral Southwest Asia Peace Conference in Madrid in October , and during the s engaged in direct negotiations with Israel. In , Assad's son Bassel al-Assad , who was likely to succeed his father, was killed in a car accident. Assad's brother, Rifaat al-Assad , was "relieved of his post" as vice-president in Thus, when Assad died in , his second son, Bashar al-Assad was chosen as his successor. Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June , after 30 years in power.

Immediately following al-Assad's death, the Syrian Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to This allowed Bashar Assad to become eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba'ath party.

History of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region - Wikipedia

On 10 July , Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering The period after Bashar al-Assad's election in the summer of saw new hopes of reform and was dubbed the Damascus Spring. The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or salons where groups of like-minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. The phenomenon of salons spread rapidly in Damascus and to a lesser extent in other cities.

Pro-democracy activists mobilized around a number of political demands, expressed in the "Manifesto of the 99". Assad ordered the release of some political prisoners in November The outlawed Muslim Brotherhood resumed its political activity. However, by the autumn of , the authorities had suppressed the pro-reform movement, crushing hopes of a break with the authoritarian past of Hafez al-Assad. Arrests of leading intellectuals continued, punctuated by occasional amnesties, over the following decade. Although the Damascus Spring had lasted for a short period, its effects still echo during the political, cultural and intellectual debates in Syria today.

Tensions with the USA grew worse after , when the US claimed Damascus was acquiring weapons of mass destruction and included Syria in a list of states that they said made-up an " axis of evil ". In the US threatened sanctions if Damascus failed to make what Washington called the "right decisions". Syria denied US allegations that it was developing chemical weapons and helping fugitive Iraqis.

An Israeli air strike against a Palestinian militant camp near Damascus in October was described by Syria as "military aggression".

History of Syria

At the congress, Bashar emphasized that "the party does not own the state", and stated that the Prime Minister and the government should be independent from the party. Up to the 10th Regional Congress, it was rumoured that Bashar al-Assad was a closet reformer who sought to introduce a market economy and liberal democratic thoughts into Syria. According to foreign analysts the Ba'ath Party has played a minor role in the Syrian Civil War , becoming more of a symbolic force in the Assad's government fight to stay in power.

La Syrie de Bashar al-Asad. Today, apart from the party branch of the security forces, all branches of the Baath, whether at the governorate or district level, are nonoperational. They are no longer able to lead the political process, report to the Regional Command concerning the situation on the ground, or provide economic and social information.

The Regional Command is not in control of the country's civil service anymore, having lost that position to the military and the security forces. Because of the Syrian civil war, a referendum on a new constitution was held on 26 February On 8 July the Central Committee, convening for the first time since , elected a new Regional Command, composed of members. According to the Syrian Arab News Agency "The members' speeches dealt with the Party's performance during the crisis and its role in defending the homeland, while other speeches criticized the role of al-Baath cadres at this delicate stage as it 'fell short of the desired performance.

Two days later, in an official interview with Bashar al-Assad, he stated that the ousted Regional Command members were removed because they made "mistakes". This did not happen in recent years". From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Popular Front for Change and Liberation. Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party Syrian branch. Abdul Halim Khaddam 5. Abd al-Rauf al-Qasem 8.

Abd al-Qadir Qaddura Abd al-Razzaq Ayyoub Abdullah al-Ahmar incumbent 3. Abdul Halim Khaddam incumbent 4. Sulayman Qaddah incumbent 5. Zuhair Masharqa incumbent 6. Abd al-Qadir Qaddura incumbent 7. Fayez Nasir incumbent 8. Ahmad Dargham incumbent 9. Mustafa Tlass incumbent Walid Hamdun incumbent Muhammad Mustafa Mero Muhammad Naji al-Otari Faruq Abu Shamat Bashar al-Assad incumbent 2.

Mohammad Naji al-Otari incumbent 4. Farouk al-Shara incumbent 5. Mohammad al-Hussein incumbent 6. Osama bin Hamed Adi 9. Yasser Tawfiq Hourieh Said Daoud Eliya Muhammad Said Bakhitan incumbent Mohammad Jihad al-Laham 4. Mohammad Shaaban Azzouz 7. Hilal Hilal Amin 8. Retrieved 9 July Retrieved 8 July How Much Change in Syria? Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Syrian Arab News Agency wn. Middle East Research and Information Project. Carnegie Middle East Center. Retrieved 19 June Retrieved 26 February Guardian News and Media. Retrieved 14 March Syrian Arab News Agency.



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