Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts: 0

Whether one is a skeptic desiring to learn of the credibility of the miraculous, or the faithful desiring to strengthen one's belief in the miraculous, Keener's work is a must-have!!! Jul 23, Chris Sobbing rated it it was amazing. Everyone should read this, as it challenges what we believe in the West to be a predominant world view with what is the actual Majority World view of mircales. Like all things by Keener it achieves it's aim through an abundance of sited evidence and references.

Sep 20, Rob Markley rated it it was amazing Shelves: Simple one line argument expanded and proved thoroughly over two volumes. Yes miracles are real. Jan 29, Joe rated it it was amazing Shelves: In his two-volume work, Miracles: Keener executes his argumentation for these two theses over four parts. In part one, he discusses the New Testament In his two-volume work, Miracles: In part one, he discusses the New Testament accounts as well as ancient miracle claims outside of Christianity, comparing and contrasting the two.

Keener develops an anthology of miracle stories and perspectives including sources from all across the Majority World as well as the recent West. Keener then picks up his second thesis in part four, where he discusses several proposed explanations for such accounts. The amount of work that Keener put into this text is extraordinary in and of itself. Though this book requires a long effort to finish, such effort is not in vain. The weight of the evidence that Keener provides does well to support his first thesis, which is that miracle claims have been and still are afforded by eyewitnesses.

The implications of this conclusion alone offer a significant insight into the Scriptures — namely that the presence of the miraculous does not necessarily discount their having been written by eyewitnesses of Jesus. His second thesis, though obviously less empirical, is argued well. Keener effectively demonstrates that during the very periods that Hume and Bultmann argued against the miraculous, eyewitnesses were attesting to their existence.

Keener admits himself the limitations of this study, which serve as the weaknesses to this work. With this book Craig Keener intends to expand upon his ideas as presented in a footnote in his recent commentary on Acts. His primary thesis is that eyewitnesses do offer miracle claims. He spends much of the book defending this thesis, and specifically targets the materialistic assumptions of David Hume and those who follow him. Following this discussion, he lists specific eyewitness claims of miraculous events from around the world and throughout history since the time of Christ.

In doing so, he challenges materialistic assumptions and a priori reasoning that supernatural, or at least supra-human forces do not exist. This is his secondary thesis, that supernatural explanations should be welcome in scholarly discussions. The book could be quite stretching for contemporary Christians, who often operate under anti-supernaturalistic assumptions. This book is also fairly lengthy and somewhat complex, and while its length might imply exhaustive research and objectivity, this is not the case. Keener himself admits that this work does not take a scientifically representative sample of contemporary miracle claims.

This may be the biggest weakness of the book. Instead of a representative sample, Keener relies heavily upon miracle claims gathered through his own contacts and personal trips. Other possible weaknesses of this book include the exceptional amount of time spent combating Hume, who has often been answered elsewhere, and its over repetition of certain ideas, such as the primary thesis as well as arguments against Hume and materialism.

Overall though, the book is an engaging read, and its lists of miracle claims are challenging for the current American reader. Oct 06, Rick rated it really liked it Shelves: Limited scope even given that it's two volumes. Tremendously instructive and insightful. Two great chapters answering David Hume's skepticism regarding miracles. Hundreds of documented eyewitness and personal accounts from around the world. He sets out to make two primary arguments: His engagement with Hume and Enlightenment anti-supernaturalism is thorough and demonstrates that contemporary Western reductionist view of reality is an anomaly not only historically, but also geographically, a feature of the Western world as opposed to what he refers to as the "Majority World.

Keener provides vast numbers of documented examples from all over the world, including in Western cultures throughout history, but particularly within recent history up into the 21st century. His work is exhaustively footnoted and includes hundreds of pages beyond the pages of his work of bibliography and other documentation.

This is not a work for someone looking for a popular level examination of Miracles. For that purpose, I would recommend Eric Metaxes' similarly titled "Miracles," which is an excellent work in itself, and much more accessible to the lay-reader. He also includes several appendices dealing with the subject of spirit possession and related issue. Jun 08, Jeffrey Backlin rated it it was ok Shelves: Miracle Accounts beyond Antiquity 7.

Majority World Perspectives 8. Examples from Asia 9. Examples from Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean Supernaturalism in Earlier Christian History Supernatural Claims in the Recent West Blindness, Inability to Walk, Death, and Nature: Some Dramatic Reports Part 4: That statement is truer than ever today when we look at the booming churches of Africa and Asia.

Craig Keener's Miracles is thus a major contribution to understanding the Christian faith, past and present. The book is all the more valuable because of Keener's thoughtful and bold analysis of the scientific method and the means by which we can test the miraculous.

This massively researched study is both learned and provocative. It is an extremely sophisticated, completely thorough treatment of its subject matter, and, in my opinion, it is now the best text available on the topic. The uniqueness of Keener's treatment lies in his location of the biblical miracles in the trajectory of ongoing, documented miracles in the name of Jesus and his kingdom throughout church history, up to and including the present. From now on, no one who deals with the credibility of biblical miracles can do so responsibly without interacting with this book.

Moreland, distinguished professor of philosophy, Talbot School of Theology, Biola University "From the very beginning of the modern approach to the Gospels, the question of miracles brought controversy. Over the last few centuries, most historical-critical scholars have dismissed them out of hand. However, in recent years, the tide has turned for a growing number of Gospel scholars. It is within this context that Craig Keener's new two-volume work can be fully appreciated. Those familiar with Keener's previous work will not be surprised by the remarkable level of scholarship in these volumes.

The depth and breadth of research is stunning. The interdisciplinary synthesis is as careful as it is brilliant. The arguments are evenhanded and nuanced. In short, this work takes scholarship on miracles to a new level of sophistication and depth. A truly amazing set of books. He shows that whatever the merits of Hume's claim in his own day, it can hardly be maintained today that 'miracles are not a part of normal experience and are not widely attested.

Keener has painstakingly assembled the necessary data and is careful in the way he presents the evidence and draws his conclusions. This book is a rarity in the scholarly world in that it is both rigorous in its scholarship and speaks with knowledge and passion about an exciting subject that demands our attention. It will be a long time before those skeptical about miracles will even begin to mount a response to what will undoubtedly henceforth be the first stop for all serious researchers on this topic. In Miracles , Craig Keener offers an invaluable example of how that enrichment can take place through hard scholarly work and a passion for integrity.

He gives us an exhaustive wealth of historical understanding, anthropological richness, and missiological savvy. The book covers far more than the subtitle implies, because Keener places the debate over the biblical miracles in many different contexts, including the philosophical debate over miracles, views of miracles in the ancient world, contemporary evidence for miracles, and the relationship of the issue to science.

Although this book is clearly the product of immense learning and a mind at home in many disciplines, it is clearly written and argued and shows good sense throughout. Stephen Evans, University Professor of Philosophy and Humanities, Baylor University "Keener dares to accuse prevailing approaches to biblical-historical inquiry of operating according to ethnocentric prejudices and presuppositions, and then dares to make the charges stick with an avalanche of interdisciplinary arguments and evidence. He challenges us to ask--not only as persons of faith, but also as committed academicians--one of the most important questions that we can: Is the natural world a closed system after all?

This monumental study combines historical inquiry into late antiquity, philosophical and existential criticism of antisupernaturalism and the legacy of David Hume's epistemological skepticism, and ethnographic study of the phenomenon of the miraculous throughout the Majority World. The result is a book that is important not only for the historical study of Jesus and the New Testament but also for our understanding of our contemporary world beyond the boundaries of our social location and its worldview. It brilliantly serves not only biblical scholars but also--equally important--mission thinkers and practitioners.

He places the miracles of Jesus and his followers in a full and rich context that includes philosophy, history, theology, exegesis, comparative religion, cultural anthropology, and firsthand observation and testimony. There is nothing like it. Keener's monumental work shifts the burden of proof heavily onto skeptics. This book is a must-read for all who are interested in the truly big questions of our day. Evans, Payzant Distinguished Professor of New Testament, Acadia Divinity College "Craig Keener has produced an impressive work that is meticulously researched, ambitious in historical and geographical scope, and relevant to current cultural concerns.

Keener's bold exploration of the plausibility of past and present miracle claims should provoke interest--and debate--among a wide range of readers. That eyewitnesses frequently testify to miraculous healings and other 'extranormal' events is demonstrated beyond doubt. Keener mounts a very strong challenge to the methodological skepticism about the miraculous to which so many New Testament scholars are still committed. Bock states this well: So, the basis for our request for vertical forgiveness is that we continually practice horizontal forgiveness.

Thus, our plea in this petition is that God would forgive us because we are continually forgiving those who sin against us. When we sin against God and others, we become indebted to them. The participle is in the present tense which emphasizes the continuous action of those who are indebted to us. And our response to them should be one of continuous forgiveness, if indeed we expect ongoing forgiveness from our heavenly Father.

The third verse to consider in the Gospel of Luke is There is no explicit statement about what sin was to be forgiven, other than that it was a sin of ignorance. Green believes that the pronoun refers to Jews and Romans who conspired to have Jesus crucified. Jesus asks that they be forgiven on the grounds that they did not know what they were doing. Consider the preceding clauses: The crucifixion detail usually consisted of one officer, perhaps a centurion, and four soldiers.

So then, Jesus is pleading for the forgiveness of this crucifixion detail. Hanging from the cross, Jesus now practiced what he preached. Jesus modeled his own teachings on love for enemies, forgiveness, and nonviolence. Yet he forgave his enemies. Is Jesus pleading for the forgiveness of all their sins or for the specific sin of killing an innocent man? On other occasions, Jesus 92 Braun, Unpacking Forgiveness, In this episode, Jesus pled with his heavenly Father: But, is this plea for God to forgive all their sins? In the broader context of the passion narrative, these soldiers had earlier brutalized Jesus, beating and flogging him.

Now they were in the process of crucifying him. Since Jesus had been found guilty by Pilate, they had no reason to question his guilt. He asks his executioners be forgiven, since they acted in ignorance. Yet, there is no evidence in this passage that the Roman soldiers had repented of this sin. Thus, Jesus practiced the very unconditional forgiveness that he preached to his disciples. The last verse to consider in Luke-Acts is Acts 7: In the literary context, Stephen stood before the Sanhedrin, offering a lengthy speech about Jewish history that culminates in the coming of Jesus, the promised Messiah, whom the Jews killed.

In a fit of rage, those present dragged Stephen outside the city walls and stoned him. In the midst of his martyrdom, Stephen plead for the forgiveness of his executioners. Although Jesus addressed his plea for the forgiveness of his executioners to his heavenly Father, Stephen pled his case to the now resurrected and ascended Lord Jesus. It was used metaphorically for the withholding of forgiveness cf.

For, on his knees amid the flying stones, he made his last appeal to the heavenly court—not this time for his own vindication but for mercy towards his executioners. See also Marshall, Luke, From the first two passages Lk. There is no evidence that our forgiveness of others should be conditioned on their repentance. In fact, our forgiveness of others is to be generous and inclusive; no one is to be excluded. From the second two passages Lk.

Not only did Jesus practice it, so did Stephen, the first Christian martyr. Exposition of Luke Just as believers are not to cause each other to sin, neither are they to withhold forgiveness especially from those who repent. In both passages, Jesus is concerned about horizontal relationships. In the verses that immediately follow Lk. Given the subject matter of causing to sin and offering forgiveness, this plea for increased faith is understandable.

Nolland puts it this way: The protasis may or may not be true. Once again, however, if the protasis is true, then it follows that the apodasis is also true. The offended must take the initiative to confront the offender. So then, as Christians, whether we are the offended or the offender, we should take the initiative to pursue reconciliation with our brothers and sisters in Christ. Although believers should be committed to this kind of mutual accountability, as we saw in the previous section, it is the responsibility of the church to impose discipline.

And again, if the protasis is true, then the apodasis is true. It is significant that the call for repentance is typically directed toward unbelievers. The Apostle Paul summarized well this call: When unbelievers obey the call to repentance and place their faith in Christ, they enjoy the forgiveness of all their sins and experience reconciliation with God cf. This is salvific forgiveness. The verb metanoeo is found in the imperative mood on the lips of John the Baptist cf.

All three men commanded: So important was the need for repentance that Jesus told the crowd: In the Greek NT, metanoeo is often combined with the Greek verb epistrepho, the semantic range of which includes: So then, divine forgiveness requires both a turning from sin and a turning toward God. As the gospels make clear, this turning to God is only possible through faith in Jesus Christ cf.

The use of metanoeo in Lk. In the NT, repentance is connected with horizontal forgiveness only here. Also, it is rare for believers to be called to repentance for vertical forgiveness. The only other time that Christians are called to repentance is in the Book of Revelation. On five occasions, the risen Jesus called churches to repent because they were in danger of apostasy cf. In this verse, aphiemi is in the aorist tense and imperative mood. Forgiveness, according to Jesus, is not optional. As we saw previously, the call to repentance from sin is often supplemented by the call to return to God cf.

Luke uses the same Greek word, epistrepho, to describe our return to our brother in Christ.

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This points to the seriousness of the sin and the necessity of extending forgiveness even in extreme cases. Are there limits to the extension of forgiveness? And his forgiveness must be without limits. Moreover, any expectation of restitution would render the need for forgiveness superfluous.

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After all, there is no need to forgive a debt once it has been repaid through restitution. Nolland offers this insight: With Jesus, the emphasis is on the readiness of the heart to forgive…The benefit of the doubt lies entirely with the one being forgiven. No matter what is said or done by the offender, it is never sufficient to merit the forgiveness of the offended. In fact, Jesus commanded us to forgive repentant brothers so that withholding forgiveness is not an option. But what if the offender is an unbeliever? This verse does not address that issue.

To use it to do so is an argument from silence. What if the offender is a believer but he does not repent? Surely we should be able to withhold forgiveness from unrepentant brothers. Again, this verse does not address that issue. And again it would be an argument from silence to use it in this way. If he does not repent, you must not forgive him.

All agreed that when repentance is present, forgiveness must be granted.

Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts (2 Volume Set)

None, however, argued that forgiveness should be withheld in the absence of repentance. Yet, it seems reasonable to infer the converse of Lk. According to deontic logic i. One, the converse could be: Two, the converse could be: If he does not repent, you may or may not forgive him. The case must be decided by context, whether the immediate context of Lk. Nothing in these verses suggests that repentance was the implied condition of horizontal forgiveness. It seems clear from these verses that Jesus taught unconditional forgiveness. Jesus emphasized mercy in forgiveness: The prioritizing of mercy can also be seen in James: Given this emphasis on mercy, it seems more prudent to extend forgiveness to the unrepentant than to withhold it.

Conclusion Vertical Forgiveness is not Formulaic Part of the problem with conditional forgiveness is that it attempts to turn forgiveness into a formula. Once the right ingredients are added in the proper order, then you have forgiveness. Since God requires repentance as a condition of forgiveness, it is reasoned, so should believers.

But is this always true? On two occasions Jesus exercised his divine Stein, Luke, As the context made clear, believers are to forgive like God with grace, mercy, kindness, and compassion. In neither case is there any evidence of repentance. Moreover, every believer will die with unconfessed sins. Yet, we have full assurance that all our sins are forgiven cf.

Thus, it is clear that God does not always require repentance as a condition for the forgiveness of each and every sin. Moreover, just because someone repents does not mean that God is obligated to forgive him. Judas, for example, repented: In spite of his repentance, there is no evidence in Scripture that Judas was forgiven for the sin of betraying Jesus cf. Some might argue that Judas was not forgiven because God judged his heart.

God is able to do what we cannot when it comes to forgiveness, namely, judge the human heart. God reserves the absolute right of divine clemency: Human Relationships are Complicated The main reason that Christians should practice unconditional forgiveness is because Jesus commanded it, making it the basis and the condition of our petition from vertical sanctifying forgiveness. Are there other reasons?

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There are at least two other reasons why believers should practice unconditional forgiveness. First, humans are finite and fallen. Because we are finite, our perspective and knowledge is limited. Because we are fallen, our perspective is skewed and our knowledge is tainted. Given the reality of the human condition, personal sins are bound to happen. Sometimes we are innocent victims of evil actions done with evil intentions. More often we add to relational problems through our actions or inactions.

In other words, we contribute to the escalation of hostility by what we do and do not do or say. When it comes time to resolves these problems, we are hardly objective in our assessment. Given our bias, we will rarely be fair in judging motives or considering circumstances. For the sake of Christian community, we should forgive each other preemptively. This allows us to diffuse the situation and move beyond the relational impasse. This forgiveness, however, should not be confused with reconciliation.

Reconciliation is the rebuilding of a trusting relationship. While forgiveness can be unilateral, reconciliation takes the best efforts of both people. A second reason to practice unconditional forgiveness is to avoid the vices of anger, bitterness, resentment, and hate. How can love keep no record of wrongdoing I Cor.

How can we not become bitter when our offender has not met the minimum standards of repentance: In the two passages where believers are exhorted to forgive as they have been forgiven by God Eph. Given the stark contrast in these verses, it seems humanly impossible to withhold forgiveness without nursing a grudge against those who have wronged us.

Unconditional Forgiveness is Countercultural When wronged, our human inclination is to get even. This inclination has not gone unnoticed by Hollywood. Countless box office hits are a veritable celebration of human vengeance, e. These movies play to our desire to get back at our offender, even if we need to take the law into our own hands. For those who are unwilling to act out this vengeful desire, the alternative is to withhold forgiveness until the other person takes responsibility for the wrong and acknowledges the injury it caused. Even then, some might continue to withhold forgiveness because no amount of repentance can undo the harm that was done.

Much of what Jesus taught was countercultural, even counter intuitive. For example, Jesus taught his disciples to love their enemies, to turn the other cheek, and to go the extra mile Mt. Conditional forgiveness is consistent with our natural inclinations and cultural climate. We want, and are often encourage, to believe that we have the right, even the obligation, to withhold forgiveness from those who have sinned against us.

In fact, withholding forgiveness seems to border on vengeance. Ironically, Adams comes to the same conclusion: With unconditional forgiveness, there is no attempt to deny the wrong or minimize the injury. The offense was wrong and the injury was real. Nonetheless, the offended preemptively forgives the offender in the hope of moving the relationship toward reconciliation. This unilateral forgiveness cancels the debt of sin and releases the offender from moral liability.

While there are no conditions to this forgiveness, there still may well be consequences, both natural and judicial. Finally, forgiveness should not be confused with reconciliation. Forgiveness can indeed be unilateral, but reconciliation is bilateral requiring the best efforts of both parties. If the offender is a Christian who refuses to be reconciled, then the offended may need to use a formal process of confrontation that culminates in church discipline. The purpose of this process, of course, is remedial rather than punitive.

The goal is the reconciliation of alienated believers within the body of Christ. Guardini cited as an example the preaching of Stephen Acts 7 ; in that homily, the pivotal figure is Christ. In this book, Guardini was careful to give only biblical examples, staying well clear of case studies from secular history. Guardini, born in Italy but reared in Germany, embraced the heritage of Christian humanism and cherished its art and poetry. That historic confrontation was a dramatic clash of cultures, much as one finds in the Scriptures.

For Guardini it was possible to see this intersection of sacred history and secular history as a long, slow preparation for the coming of Christ. By the time of Attila and Leo, the fifth century, the great conflict was between pagans and Christians, but rather than seeing two separate histories converging, it is more accurate to see history as a continuous unit. Aware of this continuity, Guardini observed in The End of the Modern World that medieval Christians had developed a constructive relationship with classical antiquity, building upon the natural truth expressed in pagan literature.

Elinor Castendyk Briefs Chicago: Originally published in Continuum, , ; see also his Romano Guardini: University of Notre Dame Press, , ISI Books, , This volume contains The End of the Modern World, trans. These three cultures conflicting in Attila did not remain so in the historical record. In time both the Roman and barbarian to use the generic Graeco-Roman term peoples converted to Christianity, which in its turn had adopted various aspects of Graeco-Roman or barbarian culture. Leone Pope Leo alone is a complete character, a person of serene strength. As Verdi knew, the dramatic confrontation in between Pope Leo the Great and Attila the Hun is just right for opera.

Moreover, that standoff, being about the fate and future of Italy, had direct bearing on events in the s. Sheed and Ward, , This article discusses the value for opera singers of having a liberal arts education, obtained from a college or university, rather than an exclusively musical training from a conservatory. Even when reading fiction, historians notice such details, especially in novels so closely based on historical personages and events.

Marauding barbarian chieftains seem hardly the proper subject for a genre over-populated with ill-fated mythological figures. Attila has a vivid dream that an old man confronts him with the message that in the name of God the Huns would be forbidden to enter Rome; in due course, Leone, an Old Roman, his entourage trailing behind him, appears on the scene to confront Attila and deliver the same message. Censors of the day forbade the depiction of religious personages on stage.

Verdi has this encounter occurring amidst the subplot of the fictional Foresto, a knight of Aquileia, and Odabella, his daughter, contriving to stab Attila to death, Attila having captured and fallen in love with Odabella. Meanwhile, Attila and Ezio, the historical Roman general Aetius d.

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That line received rave applause from the audience, seeing it as a declaration of independence from Austria. There was also a performance in December, , in Sardinia, recorded on CD: Bantam, , See also James W. The Man and His Image, ed. Corvina Books, , Gelasius asserted that in any conflict between imperial power potestas and priestly authority auctoritas , the latter took precedence, since emperors dealt with the disposition of temporal affairs, priests with that of eternal souls. Markus interpreted the historical context thus: His long estrangement from the Catholic sacraments reinforced, and was reinforced by, his low opinion of the clergy.

During those crises, he found no comfort in the Church. Yale University Press, , Subsequent quotes from Duffy are from this same page. For Gelasius, see Duffy, Saints and Sinners, 38 and 40; cf. Methuen, , Weidenfeld and Nicolson, , 46; cf. John Julius Norwich, The Popes: A History of the Papacy. The Bodley Head, , Attila the Hun and the Fall of Rome. Nevertheless, Verdi also composed an incomparable Requiem , a work which seems to have emerged from genuine, if idiosyncratic, Catholic faith. Although in life he almost never darkened the door of a church, Verdi arranged for his own funeral Mass.

One way sees the present on the downward slope of the arc, the best part being behind us; a second way sees the present on the upward slope and most of history before us; a third way is unsure where the present is on the arc, the only certainty being that history is constituted by a series of blind chances and meaningless events.

According to Guardini, the Christian view of history is distinct from these three other views, prominent throughout the ages. The first way was characteristic of the ancient pagan, who had a belief in a past Golden Age; the second way is typical of the modern Whig or progressive approach, believing that the best is yet to be; the third way also occurs today, although it can be found, for example, in ancient Epicureans, a belief that life is futile and random.

Sometimes a strong man emerges to impose his meaning on the chaos, but in time his forceful presence fades away, followed by further fragmentation and pointlessness.



The image of the arc or arch must be seen as a whole, the emphasis being neither on the ascent nor the descent; what gives it coherence, as well as meaning is the keystone, Christ. In this way, an opera like Attila, with its compelling central character, offers not only a deeper understanding of human limitations, but also of those of the nature of the craft of history. Reform from the Source, trans. Ignatius Press, , 44 and See also George A. Balthasar, Romano Guardini, For historians, it can transfer attention from antiquarian data to a transcendent panorama, such as salvation history.

For some historians, enjoying opera may be relegated to the level of a secret vice, a frivolous pursuit. Guardini cautioned against confusing the waning of an era with fallen human nature; each era will have indications of decline because humanity is marked by original sin. One would be mistaken, then, to look about for a modern Attila and fret that society is becoming more pagan.

In a way, it would be good to have more pagans: Given the choice for these days, to replace contemporary sensualists and sybarites, one would prefer a new generation of noble pagans such as Cicero, Vergil, and Seneca, pagans whose writings were vital to the growth of Western Christian culture throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Knopf, , Pantheon Books, , Regardless of what Leo the Great said to Attila the Hun, Leo made present before him that overarching truth that is Christ.

Moreover, this opera by Verdi invites a Christian historian to use it to focus once again upon the mystery contained within that arch of history that Guardini described, so that the Christian historian may then step back to survey the unlikely and unexpected persons God has used to bring about His will. Romano Guardini, Jesus Christus: Ignatius Press, , Recent discussions on matters of contemporary art have, however, displayed a sensibility for rediscovering within it a religious significance.

Rome in the context of its dynamic interface between the imperial and papal; and Jerusalem in the context of its nexus among three major world religions—Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Longhurst resides in Rome. Routledge, ; Arthur C. Danto, After the End of Art: Contemporary Art and the Pale of History Princeton: Shambhala, ; Mark C.

Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts by Craig S. Keener

Art, Architecture and Religion Chicago: Carl Michalson New York: John Dillenberger and Jane Dillenberger, trans. Coleman, Creativity and Spirituality Albany: The Divine Names and Mystical Theology, trans. Marquette University Press, Jeager Leiden, , and his doctrinal work titled The Life of Moses, trans. Malherbe, Everett Ferguson New York: Jane Turner, The Dictionary of Art, vol.

In other words, this art can envision a profoundly spiritual significance and uncover aspects of Truth and Existence without direct reference to religious content or subject matter. Suprematism and Abstract Expressionism Suprematism is an art movement originating in Russia in This image, an archetype of Abstract Expressionism, depicts four muted black squares portraying a barely discernible cruciform shape. With its predilection for symbolic revelation, this pictorial movement reaches its climax in the purest expression of universal archetypes. At first glance both artworks—Black Square and Abstract Painting no.

An analysis of this radical visual language and an exploration of mystical non-figurative expressivity provide a precedent for this art. Surely these artists did not conceive of their works to be framed in such a context. They have already been the subject of extensive critical study, some already within a theological framework.

Imprint of the Spirit Burlington VT: From Malevich to the Present Los Angeles: University of California Press, ; Kasimir Malewitsch: Suprematismus, Matthew Drutt, ed. As such, critics have ostensibly tied this art to a metaphysics and abstraction in which theology has particular interest. The purported theological content of these artworks stems from a shared tradition in which icons and symbols not only represent reality or direct to another reality, but they are, in se, their own reality.

Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts

The use of substantial form and solid colour produces an archetypal truth pervasive in both the disciplines of metaphysics and theology. Form, used as a symbol in these paintings, expressive without figurative representation, becomes an authoritative source for understanding Existence while colour, used as a subject, becomes a device to expound the attributes of God.

Apophatic Theology in Pictorial Language Perhaps the most salient feature that ties these artworks to theological discussion is their intimate association with apophatic theology and metaphysical abstraction. An Intellectual History of Iconoclasm Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Apophatic Theology in the Classical World, 1: Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, I, 12, Using this approach theology emphasizes that God is not like anything that exists, that he is totally different from everything created or imaginable and that there is nothing comparable to the divine.

Apophatic theology does not deny, nor is not opposed to positive knowledge. What is said in the apophatic sense is believed to be true, however, this approach recognizes that the nature of God goes beyond knowledge that is both positive and negative. It removes from the notion of God every positive attribute and restates it in the negation of its opposite. This discourse follows a cognitive methodology that does not dissolve the mystery of God— meanwhile, denying knowledge of God through the imperfections of created beings, it affirms the absolute perfection of its contrary.

In fact, their works have a poignantly apophatic dimension insofar as they re-veil the divine by way of negation. According to the Areopagite this manner is the most appropriate way to speak about God and approach God in the darkness of the human mind. The art historian Donald Kuspit speaks of the connection between apophatic theology and art according to the Abstract Expressionism of Reinhardt stating: Psuedo-Dionysius the Areopagite, De divinis nominibus, op.

The Divine Names and Mystical Theology, op. Jaeger Leiden, and The Life of Moses, op. Abstract Painting Abbeville Press Publishers, , Cambridge University Press, , Their paintings follow the way of apophasis insofar as they bring the observer closer to a sense of God through the path of abandonment, through absence, through what is not revealed.

They recall what the Sacred Scriptures recount: Framed in an apophatic context, their works assert how the divine essence has no form or shape; that such is non-material and non-finite. In a manner similar to how apophatic theology avows that no one can never truly define God in words or symbols, these paintings attempt to express the inadequacy of logocentric language and even the limitations of figurative representation to describe or characterize the divine.

They restrain the intellect from becoming distracted by what the eyes see. Oxford University Press, , Coleman, Creativity and Spirituality, op. George Steiner, Real Presences, op. It is exemplary form. In their method of expressing and revealing by means of negation, these artist have generated a kind of pictorial apophaticism. Such a painting typology is by its nature cryptic and not hermetic. Consequently the artists challenge the same goals of apophatic theology though through the medium of abstract pictorial art so much so that the art critic Di Giacomo states: Dionigi Areopagita, De mystica theologia, I, 3.

The abstractions employed by these artists have universal meaning as evidenced by the universal interpretations which they invariably engender. Surely it would be mistaken to think that a theory postulating abstract concepts is incompatible with theology—a science that seeks to objectify God, therefore, it is expected that theology and metaphysical abstraction in art would have various points of contact. The difference is in the manner of treatment—theology relies on divine Revelation while metaphysical abstraction hinges upon perceptual awareness and human reason.

The latter is the art of immaterial being since it seeks to depict things which are both separate from matter, namely, spiritual realities which exist without matter such as God and spiritual substances, and those subjects that matter does not enter such as act, essence and cause. Aesthetica Preprint, , The translation from the original Italian is mine. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologica, I, 3, 4. Such an aesthetic approach to theology maintains that one can never truly define the divinity in words or figures; that in the end reason gives way to visual sensation and intellectual discourse halts; that the rational functions of the human mind surrender to the contemplative mode of human being.

Upon viewing such artwork, the passive observer becomes an active participant in something trans-temporal, one who, in contemplating a sense of the mystery, must transcend discursive language and even figurative visual objects in order to arrive at an initial understanding of the nature of God. It is certainly what Gregory of Nyssa had in mind when he said: On the contrary, they seem to indicate how the absence of representationality is presentable in a positive light—not as a lack or privation but as a purification of aesthetic value, the raising of artistic properties to the level of the metaphysical.

As an exploration of the world of ideas, and involved with the ends of both metaphysics and theology, these art-forms are capable of evoking a primordial awareness in the human mind providing access to the nonphysical, transcendent and spiritual aspects of reality. Routledge, , They venture beyond physical reality, into the core of the human unconsciousness, into the unknown. By using forms that are able to establish a sense of the spiritual and exert independence from Western European traditions of figurative painting, this kind of art can be related to the icon tradition that survives in Christian Orthodoxy.

Inhabiting the scope of these artworks is the possibility of divine reception, actualized through an inspiration implemented in linear and absolute in which the invisible subsists in colour and form. An artistic and theological journey takes place in the cosmic dimension of the void and on this ground of negative representation the question of God in modern art reveals its irreducibility and union.

They draw together the lines that separate these two enterprises. By 34 John 1: They also create a mutual relationship between religion and art, one in which there is no room for dominion of one over the other. In each of these styles art is neither subservient to religion and nor does religion use this art as a vehicle for its own propaganda. Both disciplines, on account of such art, work together in a symbiosis of nurture and inspiration. Religion and art thus become fused into an identity that makes it impossible to distinguish where art begins and religion ends. The Mystery of Black in Theological Aesthetics Despite the numerous meanings of the colour black, its use in these non-representational artworks merits a second reading in order to not discard these monochromes at first viewing as simplistic, mundane or meaningless.

Black is thus simultaneously the absence of all colours that make up light—a negative connotation, and the imparticipable colour, that is, a perfect combination of multiple colours—its positive meaning. It is in this latter description that black approaches closely the notion of the divine. Their artworks rely solely on form and the textural manipulation of blackness, a development considered as mystical by the Russian painter Aleksandr Rodchenko and his followers. This is undoubtedly why Reinhardt proclaims: His paintings are characterized by the systematic way in which he rejects the conventional roles of self-expression.

Fostering Theology in Non-Figurative Imagery Suprematism and Abstract Expressionism, though equally conceptual determinations as types of abstraction, focus on fundamentally spiritual values. As these artworks challenge the limits of the visible, they prompt a new kind of awareness: Their paintings, appropriately vacant in preparation for a divine union, suggest a deep silence and infinity, a vast, all-embracing boundlessness evocative of the numinous presence of the eternal God. For the artists themselves their works retain a mystical experience associated with the concepts of the 42 Dionysius the Areopagite, Mystical Theology, Joseph H.

Garden City Press, , II. Deirdre Carabine, The Unknown God: Negative Theology in the Platonic Tradition: Plato to Eriugena Louvain: George Steiner, Real Presences Chicago: University of Chicago Press,