Origine du nom de famille GUINOT (Oeuvres courtes) (French Edition)

The relatively lenient patent systems in both countries more in France seem to have promoted interaction between makers of both countries. The stricter patent system of Germany posed barriers for most French or British makers in pursuing patent protection of their products there. The gradual lowering of importation duties during the first half of the nineteenth century led to a freer trade of musical instruments, making instruments more accessible to a larger part of the British population and even spurring the increase of the local production.

A scheme for dating all numbered Adolphe Sax instruments will be proposed. The earliest dating scheme was that of Haine and De Keyser Sax followed a common numbering system for both his brasses and his saxophones, so combining data from brasswinds and woodwinds is essential. Many of his main inventions are included in certificates of addition and some of these bear little relevance to the subject of the main patent.

In such cases, he tried to take advantage of the considerably lower cost of certificates of addition compared with the cost of issuing a new patent. These patents and aspects of later patents regarding saxhorns, saxotrombas and saxtubas, will only be mentioned here briefly since they are discussed more extensively in Chapters Four and Five. The patent was valid for five years only. The original title of patents in French can be found in the Bibliography section. The application date is, thus, noted here. They had a dual function: Sax gave instructions for its use.

For the performance of descending glissandi the slide should be gradually pulled out, and for the ascending it should be gradually returned to position. Examples were given in all tonalities for the glissando performance of the interval between the leading note and the tonic. Examples were given additionally for the usage of the slide in the performance of trills Figure 3. Whereas certain trills are difficult with the ordinary instruments, they become easier to perform with the assistance of the slide, according to Sax.

Raoux, Halary, Gautrot, Gambaro, Buffet etc. The spring slide, although it seems ingenious, never received a general adoption. It only had a limited use, especially on the cornet. There is only one surviving instrument by Sax known with this kind of spring slide; this is a cornet serial no. Various testimonies reported that this slide was impracticable.

According to a letter by Spontini, Sax even admitted having manufactured a small number of such instruments by Other testimonies for the impracticability of the compensator were also included in the report of the Juries for the Paris international exhibition. However, the artists found difficult to use rapidly and especially in combination with valves. Tribunal correctionnel de la Seine, 6me Chambre.

James Balthazar Ziegler, an obscure maker, registered in the United Kingdom, as early as a design for a cornet with double-piston valves and a spring slide. As described by Ziegler in his registered design the object of this spring slide was: With the exception of the change in the form which this improvement involves the instrument is precisely similar to those of its class as now ordinarily used. The cornet is equipped with double-piston valves of the old Mainz model. The spring slide is made in the following way: When the slide is pulled out with the help of the spring the length of the instrument is increased and the pitch is lowered; when the slide is pressed inwards with the help of the thumb piece the pitch is sharpened.

In Sax patented a similar device. There, he admitted that the spring slide in its initial version was not completely adopted by musicians since it required extra study.

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Sax referred to the problems of equal temperament and the enharmonic notes. A later trumpet of c. Le Brun inventory no. Le Brun, Brussels c. Photograph by Raymond Parks. His development was to make the instrument in such way that certain parts of it could be detachable. It would allow the addition of crooks — where needed — and of a valve section, so as to transform the natural instrument into a chromatic one.

It would allow players to both give the signals and to form small groups for the performance of duets, trios, etc. Sax provided the drawings of his bugles in four different pitches; the ordinary bugle in B-flat, and subsequently the bugles in lower pitches: He mentioned the option of having a soprano instrument in E-flat, without appending its drawing. In all the valve attachments Sax used Berlin valves.

No valve tuning slides are present see Figure 3. Detail photographed from original photograph by Raymond Parks. This is today in Brussels inventory no. These are evidently instruments based on the same concept. Collection unique d'instruments de musique de tous temps et de tous pays Paris: Dover, , This was part of the collection of Sax. Photograph by Thierry Ollivier. The instrument is being presented as forming a complete family comprised of the following instruments: Certainly Sax was not the first to apply the Berlin valve to the trumpet; Berlin valves had been applied to trumpets in Germany long before Sax.

He also praised the quality of those made by Sax in Paris. An identical model was also included in later catalogues of the maker Pelitti. Ernest Newman New York: Knopf, , , Fabbrica nazionale fondate [? In Sax was granted another certificate of addition for modifications to the slide trombone and slide trumpet. Sax pointed out that the use of the handle to assist the player to reach the lower slide positions was particularly inconvenient, especially for musicians of marching bands. This also made the execution of legato challenging, especially for amateur musicians.

In his view the valved trombone could definitely not compensate for it. He decided to combine the advantages of both instruments in his own version. The slide part was also equipped with another two or three valves, which could be used for the easier execution of musical passages, especially in the higher register of the instrument. It appears that exactly the same model with the thumb valve was produced by Sax long before it appeared in the patent. It was included in the handbill of his workshop of c. Distin advertised this model in Britain in the early s.

Already in , Thomas Key, a British maker, registered a design in Britain for a similar model trombone with a thumb valve. Sax was not a pioneer in applying the thumb valve to the trombone to bridge the gap. Sattler employed a rotary valve for that purpose as early as However, this cannot be said with certainty since it is an observation based only on drawings. Under the same principle, Sax added to the slide trumpet, which he called trompette Anglaise, a valve to lower its pitch by a tone and a half.

A better-known model of a trombone by Sax is that developed in Initially three different versions were described by Sax, with variations in the valve dispositions Figure 3. The bell section in all three versions was detachable and according to Sax it was made in a way that it resembled the same section of a slide trombone. All three versions were equipped with three Berlin valves. Later, through a second certificate of addition, 35 Sax added a fourth and a fifth valve. The fourth one was to lower the pitch by two tones, and the fifth by two tones and a half.

There is a surviving specimen in Edinburgh with four valves inventory no. These extra valves could also be used as transposing valves. Offered for sale by Jean Michel Renard. Serial number , made in Photograph by Antonia Reeve. Already in the s Sax applied his version of the Berlin valve to the cornet. The earliest surviving cornets of that kind date from This model of cornet was usually equipped with a set of shanks and crooks to change from B-flat usually to A, A-flat, G, F, E and E- flat.

In surviving instruments there are three screws in the joint of the bell with the rest of the instrument, so there are three possible positions of the turning bell. To make the alteration of the direction of the bell feasible, its shape was changed. The bell was bent and was directed to the side; it took the shape, as described by Sax, similar to that of the bell of the saxophone.

Several instruments with a bell of this kind were exhibited in the Royal Military Exhibition. One in particular was described as parabolic funnel-shaped. Eyre and Spottiswoode, , This feature was used mostly in saxhorns of different sizes and was usually, but not exclusively, combined with the six independent valves system, in the nouveau instruments. An even more extravagant development was introduced in , especially for the bigger instruments of the saxhorn family Figure 3. The bell could be rotated in two different directions.

Later Besson applied this feature on circular instruments, which became known as neoform horns. To display the application of the feature three instruments were included in the accompanying patent drawings: A surviving cornet made with these features is today in Stuttgart, in the private collection of Martin Schmid Figure 3. Private collection Martin Schmid, Stuttgart. Photograph by the author. It is known that Adolphe-Edouard Sax and Sarnette had a small orchestra of fourteen performers using instruments with special bell features to overcome problems of early recordings.

The saxophone was seen by Sax as having the shape of a parabolic cone, as described in his saxophone patent. This is contested today. Boehm described the head joint of his flute in his patent as being parabolic. Sax in was granted a patent for a concert hall in parabolic shape. After applying the parabola —or at least attempting to— in woodwind instruments and after proposing its application to the design of concert halls, it was natural to ask if and how the parabola could be applied to brass instruments.

It is interesting that although Sax explored brass instruments to the extent that some of his proposals were superficial and fanciful, the application of the parabola came almost last. In his last patent concerning brass instruments, taken out in , amongst other things, Sax suggested the application of a parabolic bell to instruments in addition to their existing bell. Depending on the point where this parabola was applied, the timbre would be affected accordingly.

Arno Press, , Only one kind of extant instrument, the Aida trumpet, appears to meet the above specification. It has been described as a double-bell trumpet, or a trumpet with a fake bell, made in such way so as to resemble ancient instruments. However, it appears to be a realisation of the application of parabola to brass instruments.

The instrument is made with one Berlin valve and an extra parabolic bell. Two variations are met in the surviving Aida trumpets for the positioning of the parabolic bell: Their internal bell resembles that of a sackbut or a Swedish kornett. The parabolic bell is made of a very thin sheet of metal that is very flexible.

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However, was Sax a pioneer in the application of parabola to brass instruments? A later patent of , filed for by Halary, was based on a similar idea. Both designs were thought to help the better reflection of sound. Similar instruments were offered for sale by Couturier in his catalogue dating from Trombones were also offered for sale in this form. No surviving instruments of this kind are known, and 46 French patent no. This is expected when taking into consideration the great difficulties that the manufacturing processes would involve.

It is probable, though, that a bell of this nature has little to contribute acoustically. It looks as if the internal, narrow bell, typical for ancient Egyptian trumpets, would affect more the quality of the sound. It is hoped that future tests will give the answers. The author is grateful to Thierry Maniguet for drawing her attention to this particular instrument. The composer originally intended to use a straight valveless trumpet. However, not all the desired notes could be produced on a valveless instrument, and thus the addition of the valve, which would be concealed from the audience, was discussed.

University of Minnesota Press, , In this patent for the first time he proposed to join together two instruments which would share the same bell and also the first half of their tubing. A version with two bells was also suggested. He joined together two instruments of the same type but of different pitch; that would give the executant a wider range of sounds to choose from.

Sax made the distinction between his development and duplex instruments of the public domain: The combination of instruments of the same pitch, but with different overall proportions, resulted in the instruments having the same range, but different timbres, which was not his objective.

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In the same patent Sax presented many different examples of cornets which either combined both descending and ascending valves or combined two instruments of different pitch with a common bell or with different bells, and this again by employing all sorts of different valve combinations. An example of the combination of both ascending and descending valves in one instrument followed. The valves were divided into two groups of three.

The main tubing goes once through the first set of three valves and it continues through the second set from where it exits towards the bell. The instrument having this length would sound in A, and this is considered its nominal pitch. By pressing any of the three valves with his left hand the performer would isolate corresponding tube length so the pitch would be raised by a semitone with each valve. By pressing any of the three valves of the second set the performer would add corresponding tube length and the pitch would be lowered by a semitone with each valve resulting in playing: This could be achieved with the means of a seventh valve, which could change the direction of air to either bell according to the desire of the performer.

The valves were equipped with tuning slides to adjust their length each time the performer wanted to switch instruments. In the general observations mentioned at the end of this patent, Sax commented that one can pitch the instruments in different intervals at will and that this system could be applied to all instruments.

Sax made a special note regarding narrow-bore instruments: Two duplex instruments were depicted, among other instruments, in the official catalogue of the French section in the London International Exhibition. It appears that already in a British maker, James Gisborne from Birmingham, had exhibited double instruments in the London International Exhibition. The more usual combinations in duplex instruments by makers were those of a bugle with a trumpet and double-bell euphoniums. There is even a surviving specimen by Sax, today in Leipzig, combining a bugle in B-flat and trumpet in E-flat, made in inventory no.

Clowes and Sons, , 1: This principle had already been patented in A small number of surviving instruments with multiple bells survive. The majority are in Brussels today; all of these are equipped with six independent valves and seven bells. In his patent Sax re-introduced instruments with multiple bells made in form saxotromba for greater convenience, since as he mentioned, in their original form these instruments were impossible to manage. An instrument of an even more ingenious design is part of the Selmer collection in Paris.

This is a trumpet in 4-ft C with thirteen bells, with sounding lengths spaced at a distance of a semitone. Through the two registres the function of the six independent valves is doubled, so that they can control the twelve of the bells; the longest tube 8-ft C sounds when no valves are pressed.

Henri Selmer collection, Paris An instrument with multiple bells is known to have been made by Distin. It was exhibited in the Royal Military Exhibition in and was later described by Day as a tenor saxhorn with seven bells, an extra echo bell, and six independent valves. This multiple-bell principle deals very well with acoustical problems, since valves can end in proportionally extended flaring section.

However, both the fingering difficulties and the considerable weight prevented their general adoption. During the same period there were three deep-bodied models of piston-valve cornets dominating the marketplace: Simon Dautreville, , 4, Initially he suggested joining together seven instruments with the same mouthpiece; six valves would be employed.

Each of them when pressed would engage the instrument with which it was connected see Figure 3. The same result is achieved in a less cumbersome way; Sax introduced the system that became known as the independent valve system. He replaced six of the instruments with an additional tube each. Each of them would be engaged by a valve. With no valves E would sound. The valves are ascending since they do not add extra tubing, but each of them isolates different amounts of the total instrument tubing. Sax noted that if the instrument was required to change pitch, the additional tubes could be supplied with tuning slides.

The first known recorded attempt, comes from an English maker John Shaw who was granted a patent for a similar system twenty-eight years before Sax. What Shaw described as a slide was not an actual slide but a very early form of double piston valve. The valves were not furnished with valve slides. An example of a six valve trombone was discussed. Depending on different needs, various numbers of valves could be employed, six at the most. Although no surviving instruments with this type of valve exist, Sax might have known of the existence of the patent, since, especially during the London Exhibition, he travelled to Britain very often.

Although the first patent of the independent valve was granted to Sax in , the first surviving numbered instrument with independent valves dates from It was not before , when through his patent of that year Sax announced the application of the system to his brass instruments of saxotromba form. The usual number of independent valves in surviving instruments is six, usually divided in two groups, three for each hand some instruments with a smaller number of valves exist and french horns have six valves in a line.

In his patent Sax discussed the example of a seven-valve trombone with independent valves. The valves are divided in two groups, of four and three. In this way Sax believed that he achieved a mathematically accurate intonation. The example depicted in the drawing section is equipped with both a main tuning slide and valve tuning slides.

Valve slides could be omitted, but Sax considered it as an essential feature. Similar examples of instruments with six valves, divided in two groups of three, were also presented. Instruments with six valves have the range of instruments with three regular valves.

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The seventh valve in the previous example would only have the extra advantage that the player would be able to play on it a trombone part. Further provisions appeared in this patent concerning the employment of both independent and regular valves. There is one example included in the patent which combines two Berlin valves with four independent valves. This model was included in the illustrated catalogue of the London International Exhibition see Figure 3. The addition of a fourth ascending valve to instruments with three regular valves was described by Sax in his patent. The six valves are descending of a semitone each.

For example, if the instrument is pitched at C all valves at rest , then it would sound B with the first valve, B-flat with the second valve, A with the third valve, A-flat with the fourth valve, G with the fifth valve, G-flat or F-sharp with the sixth valve. Sax also announced improvements in the construction of valves. A narrow tube was attached along the exterior of the valve casing.

Whereas it permitted the air to escape when the piston was depressed, it avoided the intrusion of dust. This feature can be found in most, if not all instruments with the independent system valves. As also mentioned in the sales website this is the only known example where the external tubing is not soldered to the valve casing, but is detached instead. Sax noted that this system could be also applied to the trumpet, horn, trombone and other instruments.

For the horn in particular, the valves could be placed on a detachable part, so that the instrument could be used both with and without valves. Further developments to improve the ergonomic aspect of the six independent valve instruments were announced. A detachable holding device for the firmer holding of the instrument Figure 3. There are no surviving instruments known to the author with the detachable holding device; however, some few extant instruments in various collections are equipped with a handle. Sax dispensed with the valve tuning slides. He pointed out that this was the only disadvantage of his system.

The new provision resembled, he said, the function of side holes in certain woodwinds, such as the flute and the clarinet. The performer only needs to press one valve at a time; even if more than one valve is used, only one, the shortest, will sound. There can be various combinations, and each performer should find the more suitable. Adolphe Sax, , Three tablatures prepared especially by Sax for this class have survived. This approach reminds us of similar techniques in string instruments, where the fingers can continue pressing the strings that do not sound, to be in position when needed.

The system of independent valves was used by Sax more for saxhorns and the trombones than for other brasswinds. The same can be said about later instruments made by Adolphe-Edouard Sax. In general, however, it was not successful in the long-term, probably mostly due to the difficulties that the different fingering system added. Instruments of this kind are also considerably heavier than instruments of the same size with regular valves, and more expensive. A couple of examples are two instruments in Edinburgh, both made in Belgium by Le Brun inventory nos.

According to the Royal Military Exhibition catalogue, even Besson had manufactured instruments with this valve system. Earlier, in , bass saxhorns were equipped with a fourth Berlin valve that would lower the pitch by a fourth. This valve was used both as a regular valve and as a transposing valve.

The second option presents severe intonation problems. By adding a fifth valve parallel to the fourth and perpendicular to the first three, extra valve tubing could be engaged for when the transposing valve is in use. Distin copied this system, and there is an instrument at Horniman Museum from the Boosey collection with this type of valve inventory no. A similar system made by Higham of Manchester, was mentioned by Day and was exhibited in the Royal Military Exhibition.

In his patent Sax admitted that this system was not successful either, because of the extra study its use required. Although he proposed means for its improvement, the system had no success. There he included the provision of a key close to the mouthpiece for facilitating the production of sounds in the higher register, inspired by the application of a similar key to his bass clarinet in In Sax revisited the application of keys to valved brass instruments. His reasoning was based on the view that keys facilitate the performance of trills; they do not interrupt the main tubing as the additional tubing of the valves does, and their use offers additional timbres to brass instruments.

The keys which Sax suggested to add to valved brass instruments raised the pitch of a tone, of two tones and of a tone and a half. The same notes could be played in two or three different ways, which would offer great musical advantages to the artists. There is a great variety in the number of keys and the position of the keys or holes.

Instruments with valves and keys were exhibited for the first time in the London International Exhibition. However, it was noted that all instruments could be supplied with two, three, four or five keys with an additional fee. Elwart in emphasized on the availability of two distinct timbres in instruments with valves and keys;73 he pointed out that keys become more convenient in melodic passages and for the trills, whereas the valves are more appropriate for fast passages and certain kinds of music.

It appears that Sax was indeed the maker. Instruments of a similar or identical design were exhibited during the London International Exhibition, where at least four instruments with double piston valves were shown see Chapter Four, Figure 4. There is only one known surviving instrument made by Sax which is equipped with double-piston valves.

This is an unnumbered trumpet in A- flat in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum Berlin inventory no. Sax mentioned that he had imagined a valve system for the execution of various musical passages with greater facility and rapidity. This was the system of double-piston valves with spiral springs in boxes. Sax asserted that this system was modified in Germany for a more advanced rapidity with the use of touch keys. However, this system was too complicated to make, vary fragile and too expensive, and had all the disadvantages caused by the angles of the windways of the early version of the double piston valve.

According to Robert Eliason,77 Isaac Fiske might have been the original inventor; this type of valve was made in the s by American makers. Nevertheless, the question of who was the inventor of the particular type of valve is still pending. However, there is no evidence that Sax was its inventor. In his patent he reported all the drawbacks of the rotary valve. In his view this action, although it removed the sharp angles of the early versions of the double piston valve, was noisy and very fragile.

Only a trumpet with rotary valves made by him was part of his private collection, although instruments by other makers with this type of valve were included. At least one such instrument was exhibited in in London, and very few are extant. The rotary valve was not favoured in France at the time. It was probably the foreign market that Sax aimed for. Commetant provided some information regarding the division of labour in the Sax workshop. Brass Press, , Pagnerre, , The keys and parts of woodwinds were made and assembled by Sax himself. In the same way, in brass instruments the welding of the tubes, the making of the bells, valves piston and cylinder valves , mouthpieces and all parts of the procedure were controlled by Sax.

However, in the same work, further on, Comettant reported an incident that contradicts the above. Sax had made an agreement with an external manufacturer of instrument parts to manufacture his then newly-invented valves. The present author suspects that the maker of instrument parts was Sassaigne, who testified in court a number of times as a witness against Sax.

In one of the lawsuit minutes it was reported that even Sassaigne himself had a case against Sax over financial differences; it is possible that these arose from the broken agreement concerning the making of the early Berlin valves. It is possible that the discretion over his inventions required that most of the work was performed in his own workshops, but there is no information on this subject. Renou et Maulde, , 5. In most cases inscriptions do not provide adequate information.

Most of his surviving instruments the majority of brasswinds and saxophones bear serial numbers that appear to run consecutively. Consequently, certain inscriptions can be used as landmarks and signify the beginning or end of certain periods of his production. Haine and De Keyser took into careful consideration all information coming from inscriptions, such as addresses, titles awarded to Sax throughout the years and additional stamps that appear in a limited number of instruments denoting in most cases the year when a specific instrument entered the possession of a certain organization or a person.

However, new information that has recently come to light and has been considered by the present author, shows that this system is unreliable after about ; a discrepancy has been noticed in one case of a brass instrument made before Howe assumed steady production rates and differentiated between good and bad months. In many cases he was not aware of instruments originally dated by additional stamps. Moreover, the fact that he only took into consideration saxophone production, although Sax was using a common numbering system for all instruments he produced, is in itself a limiting factor.

The present author has considered both schemes, has detected drawbacks of both and in combination with the new data that has come to light has proposed a new dating scheme of Adolphe Sax instruments. A checklist of all known Adolphe Sax wind instruments was published in the internet by the present author and Arnold Myers in at http: Since then, a great deal of new information regarding extant instruments has been communicated to the authors and the checklist is being updated on a regular basis. The nature of such publication has proved extremely useful. New entries and especially information on instrument inscriptions, and extensive archival research are the main sources of information that have led to the need for a new dating scheme of Sax instruments.

To establish a new dating system of all Adolphe Sax instruments, various attributes should be taken into consideration. The most important factors are 1 the consistency of the addresses in the inscriptions and various award titles, 2 the additional stamps on instruments 87 Bruxelles: As already mentioned by Howe this does not appear to be accurate and it would appear more logical that the system started from 1, or a much lower number than Howe in his dating system took 1 as the starting point.

The earliest known numbered instrument is an alto saxhorn with serial number , which is part of a private collection in France. Some instruments have a date inscribed on their bell. As already mentioned by Haine and De Keyser the year inscribed is not necessarily the year of manufacture, but is usually the year that the instrument entered the possession of a certain organization or a person, which according to evidence, in many cases coincides with the year of manufacture.

This is suggested by the fact that this stamp is usually separate from the main inscription. It is obvious that a stamp with a date later than the suspected year of manufacture is not a problem for us; it is an issue when a stamp denotes a year prior to the supposed manufacturing date. In a few cases the month is also stamped. This additional stamp could be complete with all four digits for the year, or incomplete, with just the last two digits of the year. In instruments with serial numbers , , , and this does not cause a major problem, since it probable that the instrument was inscribed later than the production year.

The regular inscription, though, of the Sax workshop, containing its serial number and usual information dates it to c. It is to be expected, thus, that Sax stopped using the distinction in the inscriptions with the end of the Second Empire, 4 September It appears, thus, that the instrument at different points had been the property of two organizations. Serial number Inferred date Saxophone was entered in the workshop books on 20 June , according to Haine and De Keyser , and up to that point Sax had manufactured saxophones.

Thus, these instruments were made in the beginning of year , or a little bit earlier. The tenor trombone serial no. According to Haine and De Keyser , Sax after his bankruptcy, constituted a company with his nephew Henri Sax on 11 January This partnership lasted until Some people tell the tough stories white, upper middle class, mostly male , and other people have tough stories happen to them. That we quite literally have skin in the game. S I was surprisedS to hear that the Ferguson story ate at him so much.

That whole process takes a lot out of you. Thmt But this beat has also been distressing and unrelenting. A variety of attitudinal lexis is also used in the voicing and self—attributing of opinions regarding fur- ther salient issues at stake, such as African—American professional and personal identity in relation to the grim theme of these African—American deaths.

A central issue in our converged and mobile communicative environment is the multimodal real time resonance of events, which prevents the ensuing news from being invalidated or silenced, owing to the impact of the media affordances on how we experience news. Overall, the so—called traditional media are increasingly sharing the dimensions of the new social media, which is an interesting research topic in itself. The use of reporting verbs and pronouns in our corpus displays varying extents of attribution: Actually, such narratives are increasingly tested, and there have been sev- eral Justice Department investigations resulting in indictments.

Besides, the recent shooting of five police officers in Dallas by the black veteran Micah Xavier Johnson July 7, , though vehemently condemned, was considered as a reaction to an unjust situation, rather than as an incomprehensible act of violence: Hence, this and similar episodes did not substantially reverse the growing tendency to pay specific attention to the racism in law enforcement. As concerns the second question, complex and much debated issues are involved, which lie well beyond the scope of this study.

Suffice it to say, that after the riots in Ferguson, amplified by the media, an interim African—American police chief and an interim African—American city manager were appointed. As regards the role of the media in our web—wired socio—cultural arena — where the public daily rushes to judgment, as in a kind of virtual court of public opinion, ex- pressing an immediate verdict — a final consideration may be worth making.

Politeness, Accom- modation and Appraisal Insights. The critical study of language. A multidisci- plinary Introduction, edited by T. Selected Interviews and Other Writings. In Approaches to Media Discourse, edited by P. Elite discourse and institutional racism. Peter Lang, New York. In Critical Discourse Analysis: Concepts, History, Theory, edited by R. London, Sage, White P. Tracy, Chichester, John Wiley. In The andbook of discourse analysis, edited by D. Malden, MA, Wiley, Under particular scrutiny have come labels and notes that provide diasystematic information about the usage of a word see, for example, Otlogetswe , Ptaszynski , Yang through which ideological positions exude more evidently, compared to a more discreet emana- tion through the selection of lemmas, wording of the definitions, or choice of examples.

By restricting dictionary definitions to certain contexts Verkuyl et al. Especially needy of this kind of pragmatic information are language learners whose knowledge of a foreign language often stops at the lexical and semantic level. Unlike native speakers, learners ought to benefit greatly from diasystematic information in order to go beyond a purely linguistic competence and embrace an extralinguistic one too. Particularly effective, it would seem, are usage notes: While language teachers tend to foster their use for most language learning tasks, learners still prefer to employ bilingual dictionaries Barbe Although English bilingualised dictionaries for Italian learners are still a mirage, traditional Italian—English bilingual lexicography has advanced considerably in the last few years by issuing new revised and updated editions of older Italian—English dictionar- ies.

Particularly innovative and still not wholly investigated in this field of lexicography is the inclusion of usage notes that offer Italian learners detailed information regarding culturally—bound areas of English life and society. It is the aim of this article, therefore, to begin to investigate the type of English cultural information imparted as usage notes in the following Italian—English bilingual dictionaries: Garzanti Hazon , Oxford— Paravia , and Ragazzini Methodology Although new editions of five well—known Italian—English bilingual dictionaries have been issued in the last ten years; namely, Macchi , Garzanti Hazon , Oxford—Paravia , Picchi and Ragazzini 1, only three — as mentioned above — could be selected for this research.

Since both Macchi and Picchi do not insert usage notes, we were obliged to exclude them and focus exclusively on the other three. Garzanti Hazon and Ragazzini are unidirectional, whereas Oxford—Paravia is bidirectional. That the Oxford Paravia In fact, owing to this structural difference, Oxford Paravia includes cultural notes for both users, as opposed to Garzanti Hazon and Ragazzini , whose notes for English learners of Italian are few and far between. In sum, in the reception—oriented sections of all three dictionaries, all the English lemmas accompanied by a cultural note were identified and reported along with the cultural information provided.

Results In this section attention will be placed upon the results of the manual search through the dictionaries. The results will focus upon a comparative evaluation across the three dictionaries regarding the number and semantic fields covered by the annotated lem- mas, the distribution of annotated lemmas belonging to the same semantic field, and the information provided in the cultural notes.

The number and semantic fields of annotated lemmas In Table 1 below are the semantic fields that the lemmas accompanied by cultural notes cover in the three dictionaries. The semantic fields include administration e. Celt, Yankee architecture e. Salvation Army , communication zip code , economics e. Charter schools , entertainment e. United Kingdom , government and politics e. Chancellor of the Exchequor, Congress , heritage e. Magna Carta , journalism Fleet Street , language e. National Health Service , money Maundy money , occupation e.

The Ashes , taboo e. The second evident piece of information is that the number of annotated lemmas in each dictionary differs: Garzanti adds the fewest number of cultural notes , Paravia annotates lemmas, and Ragazzini with annotated lemmas includes the greatest number of cultural notes. The third noticeable fact is that there are lemmas that are accompanied by a cultural note in one diction- ary and not in another, resulting not only in the numerical discrepancy of annotated lemmas across the dictionaries, but a different coverage of semantic fields too.

For ex- ample, the lemmas enclosure and trifle that belong to the semantic fields of agriculture and food, whilst appearing in all three dictionaries, are accompanied by a cultural note in the respective Ragazzini and Garzanti only, with the result that in the respective other two dictionaries these semantic fields are left unaccounted for. Consequently, as is very evident from the number of annotated lemmas in each dictionary, there are some semantic fields that are emblematised by a much more conspicuous number of annotated lemmas than other semantic fields.

It is the case of the semantic fields of education, government and politics in all three dictionaries; festivities in Garzanti and Ragazzini, geography in Paravia; language, law, and political correctness in Ragazzini. What is also true but not perceptible from this table is that there are semantic fields that are covered by different annotated lemmas in each dictionary. So even though all three dictionaries may include annotations regarding the same semantic field, the lemmas annotated in each dictionary might not necessarily be the same.

Thus, besides the slight difference in number, also the lemmas selected for annotation regarding the semantic field of finance differ across the dictionaries, except for The City of course. This will become clearer in the next section when the annotated lemmas covering one semantic field will be more closely examined. The distribution of annotated lemmas belonging to the same semantic field By examining the annotated lemmas belonging to three predominant semantic fields — education, government and politics, and festivities — some insight into the way the lemmas differ across the three dictionaries can be gained.

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Garzanti annotates 39 lemmas, as opposed to Paravia and Raga- zzini that annotate 12 and 15 respectively, as Table 2 below shows. In Garzanti, however, more detailed information is provided on schools for infants e. Kindergarten, nursery school , for high school leavers e. Open University, Oxbridge, technical college , on school courses remedial courses, sandwich courses, streaming , and on the differences between teachers and professors, making it the richest source of information as far as schooling and education in Britain is concerned.

Government and politics As to government and politics, it is Paravia that this time provides more lemmas with cultural notes than the other dictionaries: Paravia in fact annotates 30 lemmas, Ragazzini 23, while Garzanti annotates 15, as shown in Table 3. Moreover, unlike Garzanti and Ragazzini, it enlightens readers about the American electoral system e.

State of Union Address, Spoils system and scandals Watergate. Festivities It is instead Ragazzini that annotates the greatest number of lemmas regarding the semantic field of festivities. Besides important British and American historical events, such as Bonfire Night, Poppy Day, and Thanksgiving that appear in all three dictionaries, Garzanti and Ragazzini also provide information regarding Christian religious holidays, such as Easter, Good Friday, Michaelmas, Pancake Day. In sum, tables 2,3,4 not only exemplify the differing numerical distribution of cul- turally annotated lemmas across the three dictionaries within one semantic field, but also more importantly show what lemmas have been annotated.

Even though all three dictionaries include a significant number of annotated lemmas that represent aspects of both British and American life and society, not all three dictionaries annotate the same lemmas within each semantic field. Certainly congruence exists, such as college, prep school, public school under education, congress and commonwealth under government and politics, Halloween and Thanksgiving under festivities, but so does much incongruence. Sometimes these differences are purely denominational, such as Bonfire Night versus Guy Fawkes Night under festivities or private school versus independent school under education; in most cases, however, they are referential, which thus results in different aspects of British and American life and society being highlighted in each dictionary.

It is not easy to surmise why each dictionary should choose to highlight different aspects, but it does seem to show the individual concern each dictionary and its lexicographical team has towards its readership. By annotating more lemmas concerning education than the other dictionaries, Garzanti evidently considers this semantic field the most difficult to understand for the foreign language user. For the Paravia team, Anglo—Saxon government and politics undoubtedly need the most explanation, while for Ragazzini Anglo—Saxon festivities call for particular cultural attention.

The cultural note As to the way the cultural information is conveyed, this also differs from dictionary to dictionary. If we take as examples three highly culture—bound lemmas annotated in all three dictionaries, we might be able to perceive some of the principal differences between the dictionaries. The three lemmas chosen are bonfire night, public school s , and habeas corpus. The items highlighted in bold are lemmas that can be looked up in the same dictionary. Il 5 novembre cospiratori cattolici, guidati da Guy Fawkes, ten- tarono di far saltare il Parlamento per eliminare re e il suo governo, ma furono scoperti e giustiziati.

Guy Fawkes Night As for the cultural explanation regarding Bonfire Night, we can see that it is slightly more exhaustive in both Paravia and Ragazzini. Compared to Garzanti, more details are provided in the former dictionaries: Paravia mentions that the conspirators were Catholic and Ragazzini also mentions the fact that nowadays the guy can also represent a contested politician. Le scuole private in generale si chiamano private schools o independent schools. Le scuole pubbliche statali sono dette state schools.

Tuttavia queste scuole concedono iscrizioni gratuite o borse di studio agli allievi meritevoli meno abbienti v. Secondary schools Paravia s. Le public schools di solito sono esigenti in fatto di rendimento scolastico e danno grande importanza allo sport e allo spirito di corpo. A causa delle loro rette elevate, sono tradizionalmente frequentate da ragazzi di ceto elevato. Although the comment on public schools provided by Garzanti is longer than the one appearing in Paravia and Ragazzini, the information focuses mainly upon the de- nominational differences between private and state schools in the UK and in the USA.

The lemmas regarding the names of the schools are not accompanied by cultural labels incidentally. It is also interesting to see that Ragazzini enlightens readers as to why public schools are called so, while actually be- ing private schools. The more detailed explanation provided by Ragazzini might not be so surprising when we reconsider the number of annotated lemmas regarding the semantic field of law. If Garzanti only includes 2 coroner and habeas corpus , and Paravia includes 5 common law, habeas corpus, impeachment, licensing laws, supreme court , Ragazzini an- notates 23 lemmas act, assize, attorney, barrister, certiori, Lord High Chancellor, chancery division, clerk to the justices, common law, contempt of court, coroner, court of appeal, equity, habeas corpus, justice of the peace, lawyer, notary, solicitor, statute law, three strikes, supreme court, supreme court of judicature, tenancy.

Unlike the other two dictionaries, Ragazzini is also particularly interested in lan- guage and political correctness. The number of lemmas annotated as well as the contents of the cultural notes disclose this regard. There are 12 annotated lemmas concerning language Anglo—Saxon, basic English, BBC English, English, fit, Gaelic, jabberwocky, Norman French, pidgin English, runcible spoon, split infinitive, Welsh and 12 concerning political correctness chairman, Christian name, defective, fireman, lady or woman, lady or madam, layman, Mahometan, Ms, policeman, spokesman, stewardess as opposed to the 2 lemmas regarding language annotated in Garzanti and Paravia Garzanti: Gaelic, Welsh , and the 2 lemmas regarding political correctness annotated in Paravia only blind, deaf.

As to the contents of the annotations, indicative are the lemmas English and chairman. In the cultural note that accompanies the lemma English, Ragazzini includes both statistical data regarding the usage of the English language and historical information regarding its mixed linguistic origins.

In molti casi si sono diffusi termini alternativi che comprendono al loro interno entrambi i generi: It is the dictionary that includes the greatest number of cultural labels covering the greatest number of semantic fields and along with Paravia provides the most exhaustive cultural notes rich in historical and etymological information. Conclusions In having to put forward some tentative conclusions, we can begin by hoping that the other two dictionaries, Macchi and Picchi , will in their next editions include cultural information in the form of notes too, not only to highlight cultural dif- ferences between the Italian and English speaking worlds, but also to classify as more exhaustive tools for learners on a par with the three dictionaries Garzanti, Paravia, and Ragazzini, seeing that usage notes, as said earlier, can undoubtedly be of great help to language learners.

The three dictionaries analysed in fact annotate quite a number of English lemmas that cover a wide range of semantic fields, evidently deemed by the lexicographical teams to be difficult for language learners. While all three dictionaries are aware of the need to provide cultural information to their Italian users, it is interesting to see how Garzanti, Paravia, and Ragazzini contribute differently.

The five groups of lemmas represent areas of Anglo—Saxon life in the fields of education, festivities, government and politics, law, and religion. This can be explained by the fact that they are the fields that are most extensively covered by the annotated lemmas in the dictionaries, and so congruence in all three dictionaries is easier to come by. That said, it is of note that each dictionary privileges one semantic field, Garzanti annotates lemmas that prevalently belong to the field of education, Paravia to those that concern government and politics and Ragazzini to the lemmas regard- ing the world of the law.

The varying selection of annotated lemmas under one same semantic field and across the three dictionaries in general thus seems to suggest that each dictionary decides arbitrarily what lemmas and aspects of the social and cultural life described are worthy of attention. The attention placed upon the cultural information also differs from dictionary to dictionary.

While all three dictionaries provide clear and interesting cultural comments, Paravia and Ragazzini seem to impart more historical and etymological information than does Garzanti. Compared to Garzanti, Paravia and Ragazzini are more exhaustive and encycopaedic in nature. And it is with a lemma taken from Garzanti that we would like to conclude and offer three suggestions for future editions. Sloane Ranger The first suggestion is for more homogeneity in the selection of annotated lemmas. Sloane Ranger is a case in point.

It is annotated in Garzanti only and yet it is frequently encountered in British English. At the moment we have seen there is a disparity in the lemmas annotated in the Garzanti, Paravia and Ragazzini. It would be useful for learn- ers, if dictionary editors convened to even out the differences in the future editions of their dictionaries. Secondly, it might be worthwhile for editors to decide to annotate lemmas, which, like Sloane Ranger, describe more sensitive social issues, such as social standing, age, gender, occupation, ethnicity.

In the three dictionaries examined, it was seen that very few words of this kind have been annotated, in spite of the difficulty learners have in understanding the profound social implications of some English terms. It has to be said, moreover, that the note provided for Sloane Ranger by Garzanti un- fortunately focuses only on the etymological origins of the word, which is possibly the least fruitful information for learners.

It would certainly have been more beneficial if the lexicographical team had contemplated the inclusion of who classifies as a Sloane Ranger and in the eyes of whom. This leads us to the third recommendation: In these dictionaries, lemmas of a purely social nature amount to a mere References Primary Sources Garzanti Hazon new edition. Oxford—Paravia 3rd edition. Secondary Sources Al—Kasimi A. Linguistics and Bilingual Dictionaries.

The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography. Ethnocentrism and the English Dictionary. The Lexicography of English. Manual of Specialised Lexicography. The Preparation of Specialised Dictionaries. Tarp , Two Opposing Theories: Usage definitions, labels, examples; dictionaries of style, dictionar- ies of collocations. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, Types of Bilingual Dictionaries.

Erster Teiland, edited by F. Walter de Gruyter, The Art and Craft of Lexicography. Which Dictionary for whom? The Oxford English Dictionary. In Specialised Dictionaries for Learners, edited by P. Berlin—New York, De Gruyter, A Handbook of Lexicography: The Theory and Practice of Dictionary—Making. Lexicography in the Borderland between Knowledge and Non—Knowlwdge. Lexicographica Series Maior , Niemeyer. The codification of usage labels.

Malala Yousafzai Introductory remarks Genre variation in web environments has attracted scholarly interest in several disci- plines, mainly in linguistics Biber ; Gillaerts, Gotti ; Campagna et al. Even though research literature has frequently defined personal blogging as a form of diary or journal Sindoni , , blogs have not been systematically studied in comparison with autobiography and memoir. Affordances of personal blogging include the possibility of updating and modifying entries, interactivity with other users and a high degree of flexibility in the management of contents, which for example can be freely added, edited or deleted, and interconnectivity with other social media, for example linking a blog with other personal profiles in social networking websites e.

Facebook and media—sharing platforms e. YouTube see Herring et al. For these reasons, personal blogging can be as- sumed to be more spontaneous, interactive, and volatile than other genres, and, as such, to share some characteristics typical of spoken genres. Conversely, a memoir can be assumed to adopt a highly self—monitored style in ac- cordance with genre conventions. This definition preliminarily accounts for the eminent written nature of memoir as a genre, thus allowing us to establish another fundamental assumption that this paper will test.

Developing these assumptions, we can provisionally associate blogging to spoken genres, at least for its volatile, impermanent, interactive and spontaneous characteristics and not considering the materiality of blogging, that is written , whereas memoir as belonging to typical written genres, in terms of its stable, permanent at least within one edition , non—interactive, and self—monitored characteristics.

But how can we associate a genre that is written i. It would be highly misleading to consider spoken and written genres as two sepa- rate, opposing and never overlapping categories. For example, a written—to—be—read speech can be hardly defined as a spoken genre merely because it is read aloud by the speaker. Consistently with these views, studies have proved that speech and writing can be better analysed in terms of their typical characteristics e. To this end, research literature has suggested that speech and writing can be analysed along a cline, with countless possibilities for the description and classification of different genres and text types Biber , Furthermore, many attempts have been made to label linguistic phenomena belonging to the speech—writing interplay, for example in the distinction between integration vs.

All these examples show that the dyad opposing speech and writing as two separate and easily understandable categories is meaningless. In this paper, however, we will assume that blogging can be placed somewhere along the speech—writing cline that is close to the speech end, whereas a memoir can be placed somewhere along the speech—writing cline that is close to the writing end, as visually shown in Figure 1.

With the aim of reducing the generalisations presented so far, we have selected a specific case study in this paper, namely the personal blog written by Malala Yousafzai in and a memoir, which she co—authored with the British journalist Christina Lamb in These two particular texts present interesting characteristics that greatly increase the level of differentiation that we have already posited between the two genres of personal blog and memoir. The blog was written when Malala was eleven years old.

Originally, it was hand—written, then dictated on the phone to a journalist who digitised it and sent to BBC Urdu staff who turned it into a corporate blog. Furthermore, it was written in Urdu, and only later translated into English. However, it was the English ver- sion that made Malala internationally recognised. Hence, it is evident that this blog is interesting for at least three reasons: The memoir presents interesting characteristics as well.

After the attack, she moved to Birmingham, never to go back to her country. The title of the book is I am Malala: The former Prime Minister made the visit in his capacity as UN Special Envoy for Global Education in and the slogan was used to launch a petition in her name to deliver education to every child in Pakistan. The memoir thus is interesting for different aspects: She is of Pashtun ethnicity and was born in in Mingora, in the Swat Valley, North Pakistan, in a region thorn by conflict and religious and civil wars.

The Swat Valley is very close to the Afghan border and an area of interest to the Taliban. Malala was actually the last chance, as other schoolgirls had refused to do so, as it was judged as too dangerous by their families. It documented the first battle of Swat at a time close to the shutting down of schools following an edict by the Taliban Basharat However, critics have questioned the authenticity of her voice, maintaining that her language, style and contents are not likely to be produced by a child Siddiqui ; Waraich This blog is probably one of the texts less manipulated by the media, even though she did not have the chance to write and publish her blog entries freely, as she passed her notes to a journalist who scanned and emailed them to the BBC Urdu website Yousafzai Despite the apparent low impact of the blog, Malala and her father were soon after contacted by the New York Times reporter Adam B.

The murder attempt received international media coverage and Malala was moved to Birmingham, where she was treated and eventually saved. She also founded an organisation that raises funds to help her cause. It is within this completely changed environment that Malala wrote her memoir in collaboration with Christina Lamb. The book was generally positively received in Western countries, even though it was banned in private schools in her country, due to alleged disrespect to Islam Umair and Buncombe She has been accused of ventriloquising the Western agenda on education and critics have claimed that the blog was originally written by third parties.

In the fol- lowing Section, we will briefly compare the blog and the co—authored book from a quantitative and qualitative standpoints with the aim of describing differences, if any, in terms of spoken—written variation. However, such considera- tions go beyond the scope of this paper. In corpus linguistics, lexical density is the estimated measure of content per func- tional and lexical units in the overall text. This parameter thus gives indications about register and genre and is useful for the purposes of this analysis.

Additionally, the parameter of lexical density proves that the blog can be provisionally associated with a spoken rather than with a written genre. Furthermore, the Gunning—Fog index is a measure of readability of English writing, as it is a weighted average of words number per sentence or clause complex, and the number of polysyllabic words per word Gunning Table 1 below shows a comparison between lexical density, readability, type—token ratio and other measures between the blog and the memoir, which have been computed using Wordsmith 6 Scott Blog Memoir Lexical density Comparison between blog and memoir.

Table 1 provides a glimpse into textual information in quantitative terms. The difference in lexical density is rather striking, but can be explained in terms of the more compact nature of the blog when compared to the memoir. The aboutness is very similar, even though the blog, divided into 35 entries, is much shorter than the memoir.

Positive keyness shows in both blog and memoir a preference for lexi- cal items instead of function words, thus confirming previous results Sindoni In other words, it is likely that texts produced by a child—teenager are less elaborated, less dense and less complex, also if we consider that the analysed texts are 1 a translation in the case of the blog and 2 not produced by a native speaker. The first entry from the blog, dated 3 January , is reproduced below: I had a terrible dream yesterday with military helicopters and the Taleban.

I have had such dreams since the launch of the military operation in Swat. My mother made me breakfast and I went off to school. I was afraid going to school because the Taleban had issued an edict banning all girls from attending schools. Only 11 students attended the class out of My three friends have shifted to Peshawar, Lahore and Rawalpindi with their families after this edict. I hastened my pace and after a while I looked back if the man was still coming behind me. But to my utter relief he was talking on his mobile and must have been threatening someone else over the phone.

I wrote about being afraid to go to school because of the Taliban edict and looking over my shoulder all the time. I also described something that happened on my way home from school: I quickened my pace and after a while I looked back to see if he was following me. Yousafzai and Lamb However, at further inspection, some crucial changes in wording betrays some intervention that can be assumed as undertaken by the second author, i.

Table 2 below show such changes: Yesterday Last night with military helicopters and the Taleban filled with military helicopters and Taliban. I hastened my pace and after a while I looked back if I quickened my pace and after a while I looked back to the man was still coming behind me. But to my utter relief he was talking on his mobile To my huge relief I saw he was speaking on his phone, and must have been threatening someone else over the he must have been talking to someone else.

Comparison between the blog Yousafzai and the memoir Yousafzai and Lamb As illustrated in Table 2, differences involve substitution or partial rewriting from the BBC translation. They can be partly explained as slightly different translations from Urdu, but changes also indicate attempts at improving style without significantly altering the core meaning.

An example of these changes is: In this case, the slightly elliptical version of the blog i. Furthermore, he man was still coming behind me is changed into he was following me, thus making two significant changes: These two changes can be in- terpreted as a clear indication of preference of forms that are usually employed in written genres: What is remarkable is that all these changes are obliterated by the fact that they appear as verbatim quotations.

This can be partly explained by the fact that the blog was originally published in Urdu. The memoir continues as follows: It was thrilling to see my words on the website. I was a bit shy to start with but after a while I got to know the kind of things Hai Kakar wanted me to talk about and became more confident.

The style from this extract appears as highly conversational and not particularly elaborated, as is evident from the loose use of punctuation i. The memoir continues as follows in Sample 4 below: I wrote a lot about school as that was at the centre of our lives. I loved my royal— blue school uniform but we were advised to wear plain clothes instead and hide our books under our shawls.

Malala also quotes verbatim from her blog by referring to another entry which is part of the seven entries that are available on the BBC website. In Sample 5 below, the same passage is reported from the blog: I was getting ready for school and about to wear my uniform when I remembered that our principal had told us not to wear uniforms — and come to school wearing normal clothes instead.

So I decided to wear my favourite pink dress. Other girls in school were also wearing colourful dresses and the school presented a homely look Yousafzai Comparing Samples 4 and 5, in the blog expressions such as our principal had told us not to wear uniforms is turned into I remembered the advice of our principal in the memoir.

However, both Samples reveal that the language used is not particularly complex, as has also been proved by a preliminary quantitative analysis. Antagonizes TNF-alpha by negatively regulating its expression in various tissues such as liver and macrophages, and also by counteracting its effects. May play a role in cell growth, angiogenesis and tissue remodeling by binding and sequestering various growth factors with distinct binding affinities, depending on the type of complex, LMW, MMW or HMW.

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