Cultural Adaptation

The term, ethnic proximity, is employed here to refer to the degree of closeness or distance defined in terms of relative cultural, linguistic, and physical similarity or difference and compatibility or incompatibility.

Cultural adaptation - Wikiversity

Outstanding physical attributes e. Also, someone whose cultural values and norms are highly compatible with those of the natives is likely to find the host environment less stressful. Such compatibility also enables the individual to acquire host communication competence more smoothly and to take part in the host social communication processes with greater ease. Personality traits serve as the basis upon which the individual pursues and responds to new experiences with varying degrees of success.

Of particular interest here are those personality resources that would help facilitate adaptation by enabling the individual to withstand challenges and maximize new learning. It is this openness that clearly gives young children an adaptive advantage. Openness enables them to perceive and interpret various events and situations in the new environment without ethnocentric judgments.

The term openness incorporates other more specific terms such as flexibility, open-mindedness, and tolerance for ambiguity. Along with openness, personality strength facilitates the adaptation process. Both openness and strength of personality are closely associated with the third adaptive personality attribute, positivity. People with a positive personality can better endure many stressful encounters with a belief that things will turn out as they should.

It is a kind of idealism—a belief in possibilities and a faith in the goodness of life and people in general—as opposed to being overcome by unwarranted defeatist cynicism. Together, openness, strength, and positivity present a psychological profile of individuals who possess inner resources with which to facilitate their own adaptation. Those who are open, strong, and positive are less likely to give up easily and more likely to take risks willingly under challenging situations in the host environment. They are better equipped to work toward developing host communication competence, as they continually seek new ways to handle their life activities.

In doing so, they are better able to make necessary adjustments in themselves and facilitate their own intercultural transformation. A serious lack of these personality attributes, on the other hand, would handicap the adaptive capacity of an individual resettler. Emerging in the adaptation process are three interrelated facets of adaptive change and intercultural transformation of the individual: These three facets are interrelated developmental continua, in which individual strangers can be placed at different locations reflecting the different levels of adaptive change at a given point in time.

Well-adapted individuals would be those who have accomplished a desired level of effective functional relationship with the host environment—particularly with those individuals with whom they carry out their daily activities. Each individual also needs the ongoing validation of his or her social experience, thereby maintaining a satisfactory level of psychological health , a term that integrates related concepts such as culture shock and psychological adaptation. In the absence of adequate host communication competence, engagement in host social communication activities, and functional fitness, individuals are subject to frustration, leading to the symptoms of maladaptation such as marginalization and alienation.

Conversely, those individuals who have acquired high-level host communication competence, who actively participate in host social processes, and who are proficient in their daily transactions in the host society, are likely to enjoy a greater sense of fulfillment and efficacy. Adaptive changes further include the emergence of an intercultural identity , a gradual and largely unintended psychological evolution beyond the boundaries of childhood enculturation, an orientation toward self and others that is no longer rigidly defined by either the identity linked to the home culture or the identity of the host culture.

Intercultural identity transformation manifests itself in the progressive attainment of a self-other orientation that is increasingly individuated and universalized. These two interrelated processes of intercultural identity development define the nature of the psychological movement toward an identity orientation that is no longer bound by conventional cultural categories. Through individuation and universalization, then, individuals undergoing the process of intercultural transformation are able to cultivate a mindset that integrates, rather than separates, cultural differences with an understanding of the cultural differences between and among human groups and of the profound similarities in the human condition.

Intercultural identity is differentiated from other terms that represent various forms of additions of specific cultural components such as bicultural, multicultural, or hybrid identity. While incorporating the common thrust of these terms, intercultural identity goes beyond them, highlighting one of the well-known central maxims for all living systems: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. All of the above-identified dimensions of factors constitute the overall structure of cross-cultural adaptation Kim, , , , facilitating or impeding the process in which individuals adapt to a given host environment over time.

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As shown in Figure 2 , the interlocking bilateral influences between and among these factors help predict the successes as well as the failures in cross-cultural adaptation. Like a locomotive engine, the workings of each unit operating in this process affect, and are affected by, the workings of all other units. Inseparably linked with host communication competence is the dimension of host social communication Dimension 2 , through which strangers participate in host interpersonal and mass communication activities.

Ethnic social communication Dimension 3 is added to emphasize the role of distinct, subcultural experiences of the strangers with coethnics. Interacting with the personal and social communication dimensions are the three key conditions of the new environment Dimension 4: Collectively and interactively, these five dimensions influence and, in turn, are influenced by the adaptive changes in individual strangers in the direction of intercultural transformation Dimension 6 toward greater functional fitness and psychological health in relation to the host environment and toward the development of an intercultural identity.

The structure of cross-cultural adaptation. Whether at home or on foreign soil, numerous people the world over undergo at least some degree of acculturation, deculturation, and the experience of the stress-adaptation-growth dynamic. Despite, and because of, the many unpredictable vicissitudes of the new and changing milieu, people around the world are challenged to undertake the task of acquiring and integrating new experiences into a creative new life.

Most people in most circumstances are able to find creative ways to reconcile at least some of the old cultural habits of the internal world that are at variance with the external cultural environment. The very engine driving the cross-cultural adaptation process is an active and continuous communicative engagement with a new and unfamiliar environment. Should we choose to become successfully adapted, we will benefit from being prepared and willing to face the stressful experiences that are part-and-parcel of the adaptation process.

We will need to concentrate on acquiring new cultural communication practices and putting aside some of the old ones, recognizing that host communication competence is the fundamental mechanism driving our own adaptation process. We must be engaged in the interpersonal and mass communication processes of the host community and society. Through active participation, and through cultivating the adaptive personality of openness, strength, and positivity, we will be better able to overcome temporary setbacks and attain a level of functional efficacy we need to pursue our personal and social goals.

Although the process of becoming intercultural cannot ever be complete, each step on this path brings a new formation of life. This accomplishment is not one that only extraordinary people can attain. Rather, it is an incident of the normal human mutability manifesting itself in the work of ordinary people stretching themselves out of the old and familiar.

The dynamic nature of cross-cultural adaptation points to an alternative way of living in the world. It shows us that we can strive to embrace and incorporate seemingly divergent cultural elements into something new and unique—one that conjoins and integrates, rather than separates and divides. Modern history presents ample cases of immigrants, sojourners, and domestic migrants whose transformative adaptation experiences bear witness to the remarkable human spirit and capacity for self-renewal beyond the constraints of a single culture.

Their stories offer concrete insights into the process in which cultural strangers work through the setbacks, learn from them, and evolve into a greater self-integration beyond the perimeters of any single culture. Cross-cultural adaptation is one of the most extensively investigated fields of study with many varied perspectives and conceptions. This phenomenon has been investigated across social science disciplines continuously since the early 20th century in the United States, a nation that has dealt with a large and continuous influx of immigrants, while more recently, other Western European countries and beyond have been experiencing a significant increase in migration population.

The field of study became formalized in the s when the Social Science Research Council adopted the term, acculturation , to represent the new inquiry. Consistent with this conception of acculturation, anthropologists e. Subsequent to the early beginnings of anthropological and sociological group-level studies are a large number of psychological and communication studies that have investigated cross-cultural adaptation at the individual level.

Cultural Adaptation: Definition, Theory, Stages & Examples

Focusing on the experiences of individual immigrants and sojourners in transition from a home culture to a foreign culture, these studies have sought to identify common patterns with which the cross-cultural adaptation process unfolds, key factors that influence the process, and the changes in individuals that are likely to result from it. This individual-level approach to cross-cultural adaptation is reflected in the description of cross-cultural adaptation presented in this chapter. A synoptic overview of the extant literature is offered below in terms of the long-term and short-term perspectives on the individual experiences of cross-cultural adaptation, followed by the merging of the two perspectives into a single communication framework in the Integrative Theory of Cross-Cultural Adaptation Kim, , , By far the most dominant and consistent insight into the long-term adaptation process gained from an extensive body of studies conducted among various immigrant groups in the United States is the progressive and cumulative nature of adaptive change taking place over time within individuals and in their relationship to the host environment.

A similar directionality of change toward assimilation has been amply demonstrated in many other subsequent studies e. Deviating from the above-described traditional progressive-cumulative perspective on a long-term trend toward assimilation, Berry , proposed a more pluralistic way of understanding long-term adaptation from a psychological perspective.

This theory is built on two central issues that are likely to confront immigrants or other long-term residents: The question concerning cultural maintenance is: What distinguishes pluralistic models such as these from the traditional models is the implicit assumption that cross-cultural adaptation is essentially a matter of choice by individual immigrants and that this choice hinges on their identity orientations with respect to their original cultural group and the receiving society. In contrast, in the traditional progressive-cumulative conceptions of adaptation in the direction of assimilation are grounded in the assumption that adaptive change in individuals is not a matter of choice based on group identity, so much as a matter of a natural human drive to survive and a capacity for functional efficacy in an unfamiliar cultural environment.

By and large, studies of short-term adaptation have investigated the experience of culture shock and the processes of psychological adjustment during a relatively limited period of temporary sojourn. Subsequently, a number of alternative conceptions of culture shock have been offered. Although culture shock is typically associated with negative psychological impacts, many investigators have highlighted that most sojourners eventually achieve satisfactory adjustment.

The idea of a U-shaped curve of psychological adjustment was first introduced by Lysgaard Based on his study of Norwegian Fulbright scholars in the United States, Lysgaard observed that psychological adjustment followed a U-curve adjustment; that is, the individuals who experienced the most difficulty during their sojourn in the U. Oberg subsequently identified the four stages of a U-curve leading to an eventual satisfactory adjustment: While the U- and W-curve hypotheses have proven to be heuristic to the extent that they remain popular and are intuitively appealing, these theories have demonstrated inconsistent results when applied to different research contexts.

Comprehensive reviews of culture shock research e. Arguments have been also made that the cultural shock experience must be viewed in a broader context of learning and personal development. The Integrative Theory of Cross-Cultural Adaptation Kim, , , was originally developed to bring together various disciplinary perspectives and approaches to cross-cultural adaptation into a comprehensive and general system of description and explanation.

By conceptualizing adaptation as a continuous and cumulative evolutionary process of internal transformation, the theory consolidates the two formerly disparate and independent lines of inquiry, long-term adaptation of immigrants and short-term adaptation of temporary sojourners. It does so by employing concepts that are sufficiently generic and abstract to accommodate other more narrowly defined concepts.

For example, the core term, cross-cultural adaptation , represents not a specific analytic unit or variable , but the totality of the phenomenon pertaining to what an individual undergoes vis-a-vis a new and unfamiliar environment, thereby incorporating other more specific terms such as assimilation, acculturation, integration, and adjustment. This integrative theory presents the two models depicting the process and the structure of cross-cultural adaptation presented earlier in this chapter in Figures 1 and 2. Both models are general in that they present a wide range of applicability including the adaptation experiences of short-term and long-term strangers, from any cultural or subcultural origin, to any new destination, for any voluntary or involuntary reason.

The process model Figure 1 depicts the stress-adaptation-growth dynamic, which offers a systematic account of the process of intercultural transformation over time. Building on this cumulative and evolutionary conception of cross-cultural adaptation in the process model, the multidimensional-multifaceted structural model Figure 2 provides a comprehensive way of understanding the differential levels of cross-cultural adaptation achieved over time.

It does so by bringing together the key macro-level factors that have long investigated the issues of ethnic community, interethnic relations, social integration, and ethnicity into the micro-level analyses that have been typically taken in social psychology and communication for exclusively intrapersonal issues, such as culture shock reactions, psychological adjustment, attitude toward the host society, and culture learning. Readers seeking a deeper understanding of cross-cultural adaptation can find a full examination of the phenomenon as well as a broadly based review of the extant literature in Becoming Intercultural: A broad overview of the literature on short-term adaptation is offered by Ward, Bochner, and Furnham in The Psychology of Culture Shock This book examines an extensive body of theoretical and empirical works pertaining to the culture shock phenomenon and the U-curve and W-curve processes of psychological adjustment among temporary sojourners.

Readers may also want to learn about critical postmodern theoretical arguments against the social scientific approaches and in favor of alternative conceptions of cross-cultural adaptation. Two such works are presented in book chapters: An alternative view of culture shock. Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 15 4 , 13— Culture shock and the cross-cultural learning experience.

A new look at an old construct: International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 18 3 , — Structural determinants of Mexican American intermarriage, — Social Science Quarterly , 75 , — The politics of identity. Putting culture shock in perspective. Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. Theory, models, and some new findings pp. Understanding individuals moving between cultures.

Expectations, satisfaction, and intention to leave of American expatriate managers in Japan. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 14 4 , Towards an interactive acculturation model: A social psychological approach. International Journal of Psychology , 32 6 , — Institutional completeness of ethnic communities and the personal relations of immigrants. American Journal of Sociology , 70 2 , — The governance of ethnic communities: Political structures and processes in Canada. The attitudinal and behavioral openness scale: Scale development and construct validation.

International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 24 , 27— Psychological problems of Chinese Vietnamese refugees resettling in Quebec. The resettlement of Indochinese refugees in Canada pp. Canadian Public Health Association. Ethnic conflict, community building, and the emergence of ethnic political traditions in the United States.

A comparative perspective pp. University of North Carolina Press. The systematic analysis of socially significant events: A strategy for social research. Journal of Social Issues , 18 2 , 66— Toward a critical theoretical framework of cultural adjustment. Adaptation of migrant populations pp. Intercultural communication effectiveness as perceived by American managers in Saudi Arabia and French managers in the U. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 14 4 , — De la Garza, A. Differential adaptation and critical intercultural communication.

Journal of International and Intercultural Communication , 8 4 , — Towards a theory of language in ethnic group relations. Language in ethnic group relations. University of Chicago Press. Social networks and institutional completeness: From territory to ties.

In This Article

Canadian Journal of Sociology , 17 3 , — Acculturation and overseas assignments: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 49 , — An extension of the U-curve hypothesis. Journal of Social Issues , 19 , 33— The relationship between cross-cultural adjustment and the personality variables of self-efficacy and self-monitoring.

International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 20 , — The Study of Culture Contact. Scientific and human implications of the emerging paradigm of evolution. The interactive nature of acculturation: Perceived discrimination, acculturation attitudes and stress among ethnic repatriates in Finland, Israel and Germany. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 27 1 , 79— At home in the universe: The search for the laws of self-organization and complexity.

Communication patterns of foreign immigrants in the process of acculturation: A survey among the Korean population in Chicago. Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. Communication and cross-cultural adaptation: An integrative theory of communication and cross-cultural adaptation. Adapting to a new culture: An integrative communication theory. Globalization and a way of being. KiR is a manualized school-based substance abuse prevention program for middle school students. It was created and evaluated in Arizona through many years of community-based research funded by the National Institutes on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.

The SIRC family of adapted interventions. This effort did no yield the expected results but provided evidence from a developmental perspective that starting earlier was not cost effective. The second adaptation presented in Figure 2 was also community-generated and supported from the evidence gathered during the initial RCT of KiR. Following the principles of community-based participatory research, a steering group, including leaders from the local urban AI community and school district personnel in charge of AI programs, was formed to guide the adaptation process. In addition to engaging community members and setting up a structure to ensure a collaborative partnership, before beginning the adaptation process, formative information was collected by consulting the literature to identify culturally specific risks and protective factors and focus groups.

Based on this information, collected in conjunction with four Native American curriculum development experts, KiR was adapted, and while maintaining its core elements, the content and structure were changed to be more culturally relevant to Native American youth Kulis et al. Changes to the curriculum included 1 new drug resistant strategies that were identified by the AI youth as being more culturally relevant to them, 2 lesson plans designed to teach strategies in a more culturally relevant way, 3 more comprehensive content focusing on ethnic identity a protective factor identified in the literature , and 5 a narrative approach in teaching content Kulis et al.

In the initial pilot test of the intervention, results showed an increase in the use of REAL strategies indicating a promising effect. Based on pilot test feedback, the intervention has been further adapted and implemented on a larger scale through an RCT. The research team at SIRC is currently in the process of developing a parenting component to this intervention using the processes that were established in the development of the youth version. The Jalisco team recruited two middle schools to participate in a pilot study of the initial adapted version of KiR.

The schools were randomized to control and experimental conditions. Implementers teachers and student participants participated in the regular classroom-based intervention for 10 weeks and were also a part of a simultaneous intensive review process of the intervention through focus groups.

The overall level of comfort and satisfaction with the intervention was high and the pre- and posttest survey results were also favorable. The main concern for teachers and students was the videos that illustrate the REAL resistance strategies. The original videos were dubbed into Spanish, but the story lines, the music, and even the clothing felt foreign to the youth in Jalisco. As a result, new scripts and new videos were produced by and for youth in Jalisco. This method of adaptation did not change the core elements of the original intervention but did address aspects of deep culture Steiker et al.

Because the youth wrote and acted in the videos, they were able to construct scenarios that accurately reflected their cultural norms and values. The results of the pilot also provided additional feedback to edit the content and format of the manuals. See Figure 3 for the pilot results on alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use. The results of the pilot were very promising and identified female students at a greater risk. Females in the control group not receiving the intervention reported the greatest increase in substance use between the pre- and posttest.

The pilot results illustrate the need for the cyclical and continuous adaptation process. This case study highlights the need to conduct a gender adaptation in addition to an ethnic or nation of origin adaptation. The previously discussed models, including the SIRC model, are based on collaborations between practitioners and researchers, where researchers take the lead in the formative assessments, adaptations, and evaluations of effectiveness.

In many social work practice settings, this process might look different, although it is recommended that regardless of the setting, a partnership with the intervention designers is developed if significant modifications are going to be made to the original intervention. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC has devised a set of practical guidelines for practitioners adopting an ESI and strongly discourages adaptors to change the deep structures of the intervention McKleroy et al. The selection of an intervention is based on an initial assessment of the targeted population and an exploration of possible intervention variations Ferrer-Wreder et al.

Assessments of the population can be made through a review of the literature and by conducting interviews with key informants or focus groups with potential participants. Cultural adaptation frequently starts and stops with the identification of race, without examining how age, gender, sexual orientation, religion, acculturation, and geography shape culture.

A thorough assessment includes consideration for both deep and surface culture, as well as population-specific risksand protective factors Solomon et al. During this initial phase, social workers strive to find the best possible fit because the fewer modifications they make, the less likely the fidelity of the intervention will be compromised in the adaptation process.

When it is determined that elements of deep culture need to be changed and these changes have the potential of altering core elements of the curriculum, the evidence previously found for effectiveness may be negated indicating the need to retest the intervention in an RCT see Figure 4. Although some interventionists have explicitly identified core components that must be preserved to ensure effectiveness, others have not.

Identifying the theory of change i. Any information gleaned from this data will be used to further incorporate any adaptations into the intervention. Frequently, cultural adaptations only address surface aspects of culture while neglecting the deeper messages being communicated in the intervention. This is not necessarily bad practice. It is possible that changing the language, photographs, and the scenarios in an intervention is all that is needed to make it culturally relevant. There are, however, situations in which this is not sufficient Resnicow et al.

As mentioned previously, surface adaptation allows participants in the program to identify themselves with the intervention, but it could fail to address the larger cultural norms that may be impacting the target behaviors or decision-making process. Social workers adapting interventions should document all changes made to the original intervention and systematically evaluate the outcomes in order to ensure that the desired results are being achieved.

Social work ethics clearly instruct social workers to provide culturally competent practice and to implement interventions with the best possible evidence of efficacy. Due to the vast diversity in the human family, these imperatives can be in conflict. This conflict highlights many of the questions that still linger in the discussion of the value of implementing social work interventions with fidelity versus adapting them to better achieve a cultural fit.

It has been suggested that one way to rectify this tension is to adapt interventions in a systematic manner based on scientifically validated methods. Despite the apparent clarity of this task, the adaptation process can be challenging. The theories of adaptation that have emerged in several different fields put forward similar processes of adaptation. These may require an extensive assessment of the etiology of social problems, an understanding of the deep theoretical structure of the original intervention, and rigorous evaluation that may be beyond the capacity of individual practitioners.

To this end, more work needs to be done to build the capacities of socialworkers and social work agencies for utilizing and conducting rigorous research that would enable them to reliably adapt social work research theories and practices.

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In the absence of needed resources, social workers are encouraged to build relationships with research institution that can help them systematically assess and adapt interventions, so that they can provide the most culturally competent services. When adaptations cannot be reliably implemented, efforts need to be made to identify interventions that have been previously adapted and tested with a given population, such as those in the SIRC model, and implement them with fidelity.

With the ever expanding number of rigorously tested, culturally specific, and culturally grounded interventions, it may seem feasible at some point to have an ESI for every population in every context; however, the dynamic nature of culture and the vast diversity among humans ensure that cultural adaptation will continue to be a likely necessity in the future.

This article was previously presented at the conference on Bridging the Research and Practice gap: Declaration of Conflicting Interests. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Res Soc Work Pract. Author manuscript; available in PMC Aug 1. Marsiglia 1 and Jamie M. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer.

The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Res Soc Work Pract. See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract This article provides an overview of some common challenges and opportunities related to cultural adaptation of behavioral interventions. Cultural Adaptation The primacy of scientific rigor over cultural congruence may be a limitation in applying ESIs and a standard that should not be maintained in culturally competent social work practice.

AnEmerging Roadmap for Cultural Adaptation Cultural adaptation is an emerging science that aims at addressing these challenges and opportunities to enhance the effectiveness of interventions by grounding them in the lived experience of the participants. Open in a separate window. Adaptation in Social Work Practice The previously discussed models, including the SIRC model, are based on collaborations between practitioners and researchers, where researchers take the lead in the formative assessments, adaptations, and evaluations of effectiveness.

Recommendations Social work ethics clearly instruct social workers to provide culturally competent practice and to implement interventions with the best possible evidence of efficacy. Footnotes This article was previously presented at the conference on Bridging the Research and Practice gap: A heuristic framework for the cultural adaptation of interventions. Cultural adaptation of treatments: A resource for considering culture in evidence-based practice. Prioritizing cultural competence in the implementation of an evidence-based practice model.

Children and Youth Services Review. Toward an environmental ecology of human development. The cultural adaptation of prevention interventions: Resolving tensions between fidelity and fit. Issues and challenges in the design of culturally adapted evidence-based interventions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology.

Cultural Adaptation

The efficacy of a multicultural prevention intervention among urban American Indian youth in the southwest US. Journal of Primary Prevention. Developing culturally appropriate, evidence-based treatments for interventions with ethnic minority populations. Rastogi M, Wieling E, editors. First person accounts of ethnic minority therapists. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Parenting interventions adapted for Latino families: Latino children and families in the United States: Current research and future directions.

A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology. Theory development in the intervention cultural adaptation field. Child and Youth Care Forum. Familism values as a protective factor for Mexican-origin adolescents exposed to deviant peers. The Journal of Early Adolescence. The four cornerstones of evidence-based practice in social work. Research on Social Work Practice.



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