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Further studies indicated that this load 8. Evans and Quinney proposed a regression which included body mass and leg volume to estimate optimal loads [ ]. Higher peak power was obtained with the force predicted by this regression than with load proposed by the Wingate Institute [ ]. However, Patton et al. Consequently, the same load should be optimal for both peak power and mean power during a second Wingate test.

However, in many cases, this underestimation is probably low because the relationships between power output P versus F or V peak are quadratic:.

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A value of P equal to 0. Similarly, the values of V peak corresponding to 0. However, the value of F opt is much higher in strong subjects and the underestimation could be larger [ 79 ]. A large underestimation of F opt probably explains the low value of peak power in a study on elite basketball players [ ] where the braking force of the Wingate test was 7. The power output at the crank level is higher than the power dissipated at the flywheel level because of energy losses due to friction in the chain and sprockets. The use of toe clips improved all the performances peak power, mean power and fatigue index of a Wingate test performed with a load equal to 7.

The effects of crank length on performances during all-out cycling exercises were first studied for the Wingate test [ ]. Simulations using forward dynamics studied the values of crank length, pelvic inclination, seat height, and pedal rate which maximize power output in cycling. However, the influence of seat tube angle on maximal power output was more significant in experimental studies. Peak power W was significantly higher 7. In another study, peak power and mean power during a Wingate test were measured during a Wingate test on a Monark ergometer with a backrest, against a braking force equal to 8.

Therefore, the results of this study are in favour of a body position close to recumbent cycling with a backrest. It is possible to increase the resistance to acceleration due to flywheel inertia either by increasing the dimensions of the flywheel or by increasing the ratio between crank angular velocity and flywheel angular velocity gear ratio.

In these cases, resistance to acceleration is high enough without the addition of a frictional resistance, and the torque velocity can be determined for a large range of torques. For example, the resistance was provided solely by the moment of inertia of the flywheel in a study measuring the torque-velocity relationship during a single all-out sprint [ ].

The use of the same ergometer in young children as in adults results in an increase of the time necessary to reach V peak because of the heavy flywheel inertia. A circular chainring provides a constant radius from the crank center to the chain driving the wheel. In contrast, the radius of a noncircular chainring varies with crank angle and modifies the crank angular velocity profile over a pedal revolution.

A theoretical study focused on the design of noncircular chainrings that maximized crank power suggests that average crank power output can be increased by utilizing a noncircular chainring that allows muscles to generate power for a longer duration during the powerstroke [ ]. The corollary of a longer powerstroke is a shorter time at the bottom dead center, that is, the sector corresponding to the relaxation of the muscles active during downstroke.

The rates of force development and relaxation can limit the production of torque and power during fast cyclical movements [ 41 — 44 ].

An incomplete relaxation at the beginning of upstroke because of a shortening of the time at the bottom dead center would result in negative work and decrease in cycling mechanical efficiency. Several studies have compared the cycling performances with conventional chainrings and noncircular chainrings. On the other hand, the interest of noncircular chainrings is not obvious for longer exercises. Significantly higher performances have been observed from the beginning to the 25th second of a Wingate test but not at the end of the test 30th second [ ].

Better mechanical efficiency [ ] and delta efficiency [ ] with a noncircular chainring have been reported. However, other studies reported no differences between noncircular and circular chainrings for aerobic performance indices [ , — ] or even lower performances [ ] with the noncircular chainrings. Therefore, it is likely that the use of noncircular chainrings improved performance in all-out sprint by increasing duty cycle but not mechanical efficiency as suggested by the results of studies on long-lasting exercise at lower pedal rates and power outputs. On the other hand, the standardization of the test is easier with a stationary start, and its reliability should be improved.

The effects of the protocol on the force-velocity test Figure 10 have been studied by comparing a protocol with increasing loads in a seated position without a belt protocol A and three other protocols: However, a training effect between the first and second sessions could not be excluded in this latter study. In the protocol C, a restraining belt was placed around the waist and anchored to the saddle to maintain the seated position, as in the first studies on the isokinetic torque-velocity relationship [ 24 , ].

Indeed, it was assumed that the body weight might be insufficient to counteract the force exerted on the pedal at high loads and that the subjects could exert their maximal force by pulling against the belt. In reference protocol A , the subjects were seated without restraining belt and the test began with the lowest load.

In B, the test began with the highest load. In C, the test was performed with a restraining belt. In D, the subjects were standing up on the pedal. In the force-velocity test with a friction-braked ergometer, the sprints with the first and second loads protocol with increasing loads must be considered as learning and warm-up exercises and performed again at the end of the test [ , ]. The total duration of a force velocity test on a cycle ergometer is approximately 30—40 minutes because of the five-minute recovery intervals between the all-out sprints and the repetitions of the two first loads [ , ].

Similarly, there was no significant difference between the other recovery protocols. However, the effect of recovery intervals was not studied for more than two repetitions. Moreover, the recovery intervals between all-out sprints should be longer in power athletes who possessed higher percentages of fast muscle fibers, lower aerobic potential, and less developed capillary network see the chapter on the bioenergetics of all-out prints.

Blood lactate at F opt 6. The values of peak power were significantly improved by active recovery. This better recovery is attributed to a lowering of muscle lactate. Similarly, an increase of blood lactate concentration In summary, maximal power depends on the protocol: The reliability of a test is defined as the consistency or reproducibility of performance when someone performs the test repeatedly [ ].

The values of r test-retest and ICC were higher than 0. The correlation coefficients r and ICC were lower for V 0 because of the smaller variance of this parameter. However, as indicated by the value of SEE 2. This test-retest study was performed after one habituation session and at the same hour for both sessions to limit the time-of-day effect. The coefficients of variation of the slope and intercept of the regression between torque and pedal rate on isokinetic ergometer were In the same study, the coefficient of variation was 8. In another study on isokinetic torque-velocity relationship, the between-days test-retest correlation coefficient was equal to 0.

In physical education students tested five times within 15 days, PP corr measured during session 2 was 4. The reliability of the results of the inertial load test has been investigated in two studies [ , ]. The mean coefficients of variation of the different parameters measured with the inertial method 4 trials on the same day were 3. The intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.

The between-days test-retest correlation coefficient was equal to 0. However, there were large variations in decrement indices between sessions, which probably limits the interest of this repeated-sprint cycling test. The intraclass correlation coefficient for peak 5-second power output and mean power output was 0.

In young children, the practice of all-out cycling exercises the days before testing is probably necessary [ 82 , , ]. In summary, the reliability of maximal power indices is high, whatever the protocol Wingate test, force-velocity test, inertial load test, repeated-sprint test and the ergometer friction-braked or isokinetic.

However, it is likely that one familiarisation session is useful or even necessary in young children. In contrast, the reliability of the fatigue indices fatigue index of the Wingate test, decrement indices of the repeated-sprint tests is low even after familiarisation sessions. Significant correlations have been found between maximal power on a cycle ergometre and vertical jump performances [ , — ] and the stair case test of Margaria [ ]. In volleyball players, CMJ was also significantly correlated with F 0 in cycling [ ].

The mean power during a Wingate test was significantly correlated with the result of the Bosco anaerobic test which consists in the repetition of maximal vertical jumps during 30 seconds [ ]. In the following lines, it will be assumed 1 that there is no slippage of the wheel on the road; 2 that the rotational kinetic energy of the wheels and the energy loss in the tyres are negligible. According to the principle of energy conservation, the relationship between V , F , S and the force F Road exerted on the road is [ ].

As a consequence, the relationship between power P and S is equivalent to the relationship between power and pedal frequency in laboratory testing:. When speed S reaches its peak value S Peak during an all-out cycling exercise, acceleration is equal to zero and F Road is equal to R Air. In a first approximation, R Air is proportional to the square of speed S:. Therefore, the value of peak speed corresponds to the positive root R 2 of the following second order equation:. In theory, the relationship between torque and velocity can also be used to predict the cycling speed curve during an all-out sprint on track [ ].

The analytic solution of the relation between speed S and time t corresponds to the following equation:. The validity of the use of the force-velocity relationship for the prediction of field performances in sprint cycling has been verified in a study which compared maximal torque- and power-pedalling rate relationships estimated from the data of an inertial load test and power measured on the field [ ]. The muscle mass active during all-out cycling is the main quantitative factors limiting maximal power output. The main qualitative factors are probably fast fiber percentage, mechanical efficiency, and motor control.

Moreover, some experimental data indicate that maximal power output depends on fatigue even during the completion of very short all-out exercise. The influences of cycling efficiency, fatigue, muscle mass, percentage of fast muscle fibers, age, and gender as factors limiting maximal power output are discussed in the following paragraphs. The first assumption underlying the use of power output on a cycle ergometer as an index of aerobic or anaerobic performance is that there is no large difference in efficiency between subjects. The aerobic metabolism provides the energy supply of cycling at low intensity.

Therefore, it is possible to compute the mechanical efficiency work divided by energy consumption from the measurements of mechanical work and oxygen uptake during these exercises. For example, it was found that the better efficiency in elite cyclists was related to the percentage of type I muscle fibers [ ], whereas another study found that there was no significant difference between elite and recreational cyclists [ ].

The index of mechanical effectiveness is another approach of the study of efficiency in cycling [ , ]. The force F P exerted on the pedal is the sum of a normal component F N tangential to the trajectory of the pedal and a radial component F R. It is assumed that a higher value of IE corresponds to a better efficiency. Unfortunately, the anaerobic metabolism provides the energy supply, and there is no steady state during maximal power output, which makes difficult the measurement of energy consumption and the computation of mechanical efficiency.

Indeed, the force exerted on the pedal depends not only on the muscle actions but also on the changes in the mechanical energy of the legs see Appendix B. The changes in the gravitational force are the main component of the changes in leg mechanical energy Figure 1 , and, therefore, the gravitational force is one of the main forces acting on the pedal, especially at low power output.

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The cyclist cannot modify the vertical direction of this force: Moreover, these nonmuscular, gravitational forces depend on the anthropometry of the subject [ ]: It is possible that the control of the cycling movement at high pedal rate by the brain is facilitated by the contribution of spinal Central Pattern Generators [ ]. Similarly, the studies on the reliability of the different indices of maximal power suggest the interest of one or two sessions of familiarization, especially in children.

The torque-velocity curves in subjects who never ride a bicycle Figure 13 indicate that several familiarization sessions are probably needed in these subjects [ ]. Relationships between crank torque and crank angular velocity during all-out exercises on a Monark cycle ergometer against two braking forces F. For cyclic exercise, maximal power output decreases rapidly as the duration of effort increases [ ]. The effects of fatigue upon the results of the all-out cycling exercises have mainly been studied for the long-lasting exercises such as the Wingate test.

For example, it has been found that the fatigue index equal to the difference between the peak and the lower power outputs during a Wingate test mainly depends on aerobic factors maximal oxygen uptake, mitochondrial enzymes concentrations, etc. Indeed, time to PP corr is approximately equal to 1. Time to PP corr increased with the load 0. The power produced at 0. Power output at 1. In theory, maximal power output can be measured during the first revolution of a test performed on an isokinetic ergometer, provided that pedal rate is optimal.

Peak power output was reached around 3. The fatigue during isokinetic ergometry has been modelled a fourth degree polynomial in one subject [ ]. The torque-velocity relationships corresponding to single all-out sprints against low and high braking forces can be described by the same regression line black continuous line in Figure 6. However, the regression of the sprint against the heavy resistance red regression line in Figure 6 was different from the regression corresponding to the sprint against the light resistance blue regression line. Fatigue could be function of the number of cumulated pedal revolutions in addition to the amount of cumulated work and metabolic byproducts [ — ].

Therefore, the effect of fatigue could increase with the duration of the force-velocity tests and the number of revolutions necessary to reach a given pedal rate. Therefore, N R and t opt increase with F [ ]. This could explain why PP corr decreased as the load increases from 5. Interestingly, these effects of fatigue and number of revolutions on the relationship between torque and pedal rate was not observed when torque was measured on the pedal crank with a Lode ergometer in the linear mode [ 27 ].

Indeed, the torque corresponding to the peak pedal rate with a high value of f i arrows in Figure 8 was not different from the torque corresponding to the same pedal rate at the beginning of a sprint with low value of f i. Therefore, the magnitude of the fatigue and the importance of the number of revolutions during short all-out cycling exercises are debatable.

Moreover, it must be mentioned that some results presented in the study by Kyle and Caiozzo [ ] were questionable. Moreover, the presented data corresponded to one subject, only. The possibility of a significant fatigue effect at the very beginning 0. The determination of the active muscle volume is not only a question of anthropometry but also a question of biomechanics and physiology: The EMG records [ 32 , 33 , 35 ] and functional magnetic resonance studies [ ] indicated that most of the leg muscle groups are involved in all-out sprint.

Cycling corresponds to a circular movement of the foot, and this movement does not correspond to simultaneous maximal activations of all the leg extensor muscles during downstroke and leg flexor muscles during upstroke. In a same muscle group, the percentages of slow and fast fibers depend on the muscles. For the plantar ankle flexors, slow fibers and fast fibers prevail in the soleus and gastrocnemii, respectively.

Therefore, it is likely that pedal rate cannot be simultaneously optimal for power output in all the muscles. The estimated lean thigh volumes of the two legs were 9. In a large scale MRI study, the thigh muscle mass 9. The shortening velocity cannot simultaneously be optimal for the slow and fast fibers which compose a given muscle. The value of V opt of a whole muscle is a compromise between the values of V opt of its slow and fast fibers.

Therefore, the maximal power output of a mixed muscle is lower than the sum of the maximal powers of its slow and fast fibers. Sargeant's model assumes 1 that the ratio of maximal shortening velocities of normal human type I and II fibers is around 1: It is also interesting to compare these data with those of simulation studies focused on the effect of seat tube angle and seat configuration on maximal power output [ , ].

The muscles were assumed to behave according to Hill's equation see Appendix A with the following parameters: This discrepancy between data collected in isolated muscles and maximal power output in cycling could be explained by. Similarly, the value of F opt in cycling was significantly related to thigh muscle area determined from tomodensitometric radiographs of both thighs [ 83 ] and different strength indices measured in isometric maximal voluntary force, maximal rate of force development or isokinetic conditions [ 79 ].

Power is the product of force and velocity. The maximal power of a muscle fiber mainly depends on its maximal shortening velocity V 0 see Appendix A. The curvature of the force velocity relationship is the second parameter which determines maximal power: The curvature of the force-velocity relationship is less marked in fast fibers, which partly explain their higher maximal power [ 15 ]. The combination of a less curvature and higher values of V 0 and F 0 results in maximal power outputs which are generally considered as much higher in fast fibers Figure 15 b.

Similarly, V opt during sprint cycling was significantly correlated to vastus lateralis MHC-II composition in a study comparing old and young subjects [ ]. Consequently, in power athletes, high rates of force development are probably necessary to produce high values of torque and power during cycling. The rate of force or torque development and relaxation depends on many factors such as muscle-fibre type, activation-deactivation dynamics, and musculotendinous stiffness. The rate of force development depends on muscle-fibre type: Fast and intense muscle activation is necessary for fast rates of force development [ ] and probably not only for high pedal rates [ 43 ] but also for maximal power output in cycling as suggested by a simulation of all-out cycling [ 44 ].

The rate of force development also depends on musculotendinous stiffness. High musculotendinous stiffness should facilitate not only torque development but also relaxation in the most powerful subjects. The cross-sectional areas of all three major fiber types are larger in men [ ]. The vastus lateralis muscle contained the same percentage of the different types of muscle fibers [ ] in men and women: But there are differences in the cross-sectional areas of the main fiber types: Consequently, the percentage of the cross-sectional area that corresponds to the slow fibers is significantly higher in women.

When expressed as absolute values watts , peak power of a Wingate test is significantly lower in women.

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This effect of age upon the maximal mechanical power contrasts with the age effect on maximal oxygen uptake related to body weight, which does not change from childhood to young adulthood in males. Most of the studies on the age effect used second all-out tests derived from the Wingate test [ 90 , 91 , , ]. The performances in the Wingate test reach their highest values at the end of the third decade [ ]. When the Wingate test is performed with the arms cranking exercise , the highest values are observed at the end of the second decade [ ].

In an allometric transversal study on young male basketball players In another longitudinal allometric study in children and adolescents 12—17 years , the effect of pubertal maturation on the Wingate performances was not significant in multiple regressions including body mass, fat mass, body height, and gender if chronological age was also included in the multiple regression [ 90 ]. However, the braking force 7. The use of the same flywheel in young children results in an increase in time-to- V peak when compared with time-to- V peak in adults, which should increase the effect of fatigue.

There are few studies on muscle fibers in children [ , — ]. Thereafter, this percentage remains constant, and, for example, there is no significant difference in the fiber type distribution patterns between 6-year-old children and adults [ ]. The mean diameter of muscle fibers is about 10—12 micron at birth and increases to 40—60 micron at age 15—20 years [ ]. This increase in diameter corresponds to a mean increase in cross-sectional area by a factor of Before the age of 15 years, there is no difference between muscles from males and females, and type I fibres are usually thicker than type II fibres.

However, cross-sectional area of type II fibres increases by a factor of 31 in male subjects. Therefore, type II fibers become thicker than type I fibres in male subjects at 20 years.

The Measurement of Maximal (Anaerobic) Power Output on a Cycle Ergometer: A Critical Review

It has been suggested that age-related differences in maximum power production could be also due to differences in intermuscular coordination [ ]. For example, the practice of all-out cycling exercises the days before testing is probably necessary in young children [ 82 , , ]. It is also possible that there are differences in the distribution of the individual joint power contributions to total pedal power between adults and children because of their small body size [ ].

Indeed, the relative contribution of ankle power to pedal power in children was only half that of adults, and not a significant increase in the contribution of knee joint power was observed in these small subjects. According to some data in the literature, age has little or no influence on V opt in children [ , ]. However, V opt depends on crank length Figure 8. Consequently, V opt should depend on age in children if crank length is not adjusted to body dimensions. Unfortunately, the crank length was not adjusted to the body dimensions of the subjects, and the value of V opt was probably underestimated in small and young subjects.

Muscle mass increases with growth up to adulthood and decreases during the last decades sarcopenia. Loss of muscle mass is the main factor contributing to strength decline in older men and women. The decrease in muscle mass with ageing is the consequence of reductions in fibers size and muscle fiber number. Histological data, from needle biopsy of the vastus lateralis muscle, indicate that the percentage of the different muscle fibers are probably not modified with aging but that average type II fiber size decreases with age, whereas the size of type I fibers is much less affected.

Whole muscle cross-sections from the vastus lateralis muscle obtained on cadaver showed similar reductions in the number of type I and II fibers with aging: It is likely that motoneuron losses may be responsible for age-related loss of muscle fibers as suggested by signs of progressive denervation-reinnervation processes secondary to chronic neuropathies fiber type grouping, fiber atrophy, coexpression of myosin heavy chain isoforms.

Moreover, some studies indicate that in aging and disuse, the properties of a muscle fiber type could change with no change in its myosin isoform content [ ]. The declines in V opt 3. In summary, the effects of gender, childhood, and aging upon maximal power are mainly explained by the differences in muscle volume and type II fiber size. Maximal power indices are significantly lower in female, children, and aged people when they are compared to male adults even when these indices are related to body mass.

These differences are less important when maximal power is related to lean body mass to take into account the difference in fat mass. However, maximal power is higher in male adults even when it is related to active muscle mass. Indeed, muscle power also depends on muscle fiber types. Needle biopsies of the vastus lateralis muscle indicate that the percentages of the different muscle fibers are probably not different but that the average type II fiber sizes are lower in children, female adults, and aged people when compared with male adults. Moreover, the magnitude of the temperature effect was velocity dependent.

In a first study, twelve subjects performed the Wingate test on 12 separate occasions duplicate measurements at There was no significant effect of time of day upon PP and MP in spite of a temperature peak about In contrast, the more recent studies on the effects of time of day on short-term exercise indicate that, in neutral environment, the diurnal increase in body temperature acrophase in the late afternoon has a passive warm-up effect which improves muscle force and power [ ]. Indeed, several studies have observed simultaneous increases in central body temperature and indices of muscular power [ — ].

Similarly, significant circadian rhythms were found for the results of a force-velocity test on a cycle ergometer [ ]. The amplitudes of circadian rhythms were 3. Another study compared the interaction of the time of the day PP and MP were significantly higher in the afternoon with both warm-up durations. However, the effects of a min warm-up were significantly higher than the effects of a 5-min warm-up in the morning but not in the afternoon. Consequently, longer warm-up protocols are recommended in the morning to minimize the diurnal fluctuations of anaerobic performances.

The effects of time of day were also studied for the ability to repeated sprints [ , ]. In both studies, subjects performed the same protocol: In the first study, power output during the first sprint was 5. But the results of the 2nd to 5th sprints were equal in the morning and evening tests [ ]. In the second study [ ], power output was significantly higher during the first three sprints in the evening when compared with the morning. In addition to the measurement of power output, surface electromyography EMG was collected in four muscles vastus medialis, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and biceps femoris , and neuromuscular efficiency ratio between work production and muscle activity level was computed during the five sprints.

There was no difference in neuromuscular efficiency between morning and evening tests. Therefore, the diurnal improvement in muscle power and fatigue was interpreted as an improvement of the muscle contractile properties in the evening without a modification in neural drive. Power output peak power measured at the peak velocity V peak of an all-out test performed on a friction-braked ergometer depends on the braking force F.

The interest of all-out tests lasting more than 10 seconds is questionable as the mean power and fatigue indices difference between peak power and the lower power output largely depend on aerobic metabolism. Therefore, the all-out tests lasting 30 seconds e. However, it is likely that this short all-out test cannot be considered as purely alactic.

In addition to peak power, the force-velocity relationship in cycling can also be determined by measuring the force exerted on the pedal during all-out exercises on an isokinetic cycle ergometer at different constant pedal rates. The force-velocity relationship in cycling can also be determined indirectly from the acceleration of the ergometer flywheel or directly from the measurement of torque during a single all-out exercise. Maximal power depends not only on muscle mass but also on V opt which, in turn, depends on the percentage of fast fibers in the leg muscles.

When compared with young male adults, maximal power output related to body mass is lower in prepubertal children, women, and aged people, probably because of a lower muscle volume and a lower relative importance of the cross-sectional area of the fast fibers. The topics of the first studies on muscle properties were not related to mechanics force, velocity, power but energetics maximal work, efficiency of muscular work, metabolism for the isolated muscle as well as man.

According to Amar, the most famous geometers and physicists Bernoulli, Euler, Coulomb, Coriolis studied the maximal work in a theoretical way with the method used by the hydraulicians [ ]. These scientists imagined that a fluid circulates in the muscle with a velocity v , and they assume that the efforts are proportional to the square of v. For example, Euler proposed the following formula [ ]:.

On Figure 14 , the force-velocity relationship corresponding to the first Euler's equation is compared with the force-velocity relationships that have been proposed later. More than one century later, a force-velocity relationship was deduced from experimental studies on the relationship between maximal work and contraction time in man. For the flexion of the arm in the supinated position, it was found experimentally by Hill [ ], and confirmed by Lupton [ ], that the work done increases as the speed of movement decreases, according to the formula:. Hill came to the conclusion that a muscle could be represented mechanically by a spring working in a viscous medium.

For Hill, The external work done in a muscular contraction is diminished through viscosity by an amount depending upon the velocity of shortening. As the amplitude of the elbow flexion L was the same for all the loads, the work-time relationship corresponded to force-time relationship:. For Fenn and Marsh [ 12 ] or Aubert [ ], the force velocity relationship was exponential:.

In , Hill [ 13 ] proposed a hyperbolic relationship between force and velocity:. Hill's force-velocity equation is generally used in the simulation studies on cycling optimisation [ , ]. In slow muscles [ 15 ], k ranges between 0. In slow muscle fibers, maximal power ranges between 0. In fast muscle fibers, maximal power ranges between 1. Moreover, the deleterious effects of acidosis and phosphate ions depend on temperature [ 19 ].

In addition, low pH depresses maximal power in slow and fast skinned fibers: Cycling is a double task: In 2D models sagittal plane , the cycling leg is often simplified as a system with two degrees of freedom whose actuators are mono- and biarticular muscles. The muscles that participate in cycling can be gathered in four functional groups [ 35 , ]: These four muscle groups could be associated in two alternating pairs [ 35 , ]: Submaximal cycling is the expression of three synergies corresponding to the functional muscle groups A, B, and D [ 37 ]. Rhythmic motor activity in animals is produced in large part by the activity of Central Pattern Generators CPG located in the spinal cord which can produce a variety of locomotor rhythms and patterns [ ].

It has been suggested that a similar organization could also operate in humans, and common mechanisms of neural control could be active across many different rhythmic limb movements [ , ]. In cycling, the phases of muscle force production coincide with the phases of muscle shortening both for mono- and biarticular muscles [ ]. However, during this phase, the vasti are coactivated with their biarticular antagonists, the hamstring muscles. Both monoarticular knee extensors and biarticular knee flexors exert force while shortening and, therefore, produce positive work during the end of knee extension [ ].

The combination of hip and knee extensions results in a lower shortening velocity of the hamstring muscle and, consequently, higher force production for the same activation. Van Ingen Schenau et al. Most of the power produced by the hip and knee extensors is transmitted to the foot at the ankle joint, but there is a part of the quadriceps power output transferred to the foot by the gastrocnemii and the Achilles tendon during knee extension.

The higher the force of the gastrocnemii, the higher the quadriceps power output which can be transmitted by the Achilles tendon. Indeed, according to the principle of energy conservation, there are transformations between kinetic and potential energies and energy transfer between the legs and the cycle ergometer crank and saddle within a pedal revolution if there is no dissipative force.

Possible dissipative forces are frictional forces at the joints ankle, knee, and foot and the forces exerted by the active muscles which contract eccentrically. Frictional forces at joints are considered as negligible in healthy subjects. The muscles exert dissipative force when they are stretched but only when this stretching occurs while they are activated. The results of studies combining electromyography and the computation of the length muscles from movement analysis [ , ] suggest that energy dissipation due to eccentric contraction is low during cycling exercises at low and medium pedal rates.

Therefore, the instantaneous values of torque T crank or power P crank also depend on the transfer of energy between the leg and the crank. During upstroke, the torque measured at the crank is not the only result of leg flexor contractions but is also the result of the transfer of energy from the crank to the ascending leg. Similarly, at the end of the downstroke, the mechanical energy of the leg is transformed in external work and torque. Left and right cranks are linked together by a rigid axle, which facilitate the energy transfer between the descending and ascending legs.

In a first approximation, the variations in mechanical energies of the extending and flexing legs are in phase opposition. As a consequence, the instantaneous variations in mechanical energy kinetic and potential energies of both legs are relatively small if the energy of the right leg is added to the left one. In submaximal cycling at low pedal rate, the use of the inverse dynamic technique has shown that most of the power during downstroke is produced at the knee [ 31 ]. In , Dickinson [ ] published a study designed to verify Hill's hypothesis that the average external force exerted during a muscular movement, carried out with maximal effort, may be regarded as equal to a constant theoretical force diminished by an amount proportional to the speed of movement.

This study was performed on a friction-braked ergometer Martin's ergometer. The meter of development D , that is, the distance travelled by a point of the rim for each pedal revolution, was 4. The tangential force F P exerted on the pedal of the Martin's ergometer corresponded to 3. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Biomed Res Int v. Published online Aug Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer.

Received Nov 19; Accepted Jun This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract The interests and limits of the different methods and protocols of maximal anaerobic power P max assessment are reviewed: Introduction For a long time, the physical examination of athletes mainly consisted in the study of cardiovascular performances and endurance.

Open in a separate window. Bioenergetics of Short All-Out Exercises Paradoxically, the first protocols of maximal power assessment were not proposed to determine the mechanical properties of the legs or the arms. Inorganic phosphates correspond to monoprotonated and diprotonated phosphate ions whose proportions depend on pH: The linear relationship between V peak and F computed according to the least square method was transformed: Corrected Peak Power [ ] The force exerted on the pedal is used not only for the rotation of the flywheel against the braking force F but also for the acceleration of the flywheel up to peak velocity.

Then a linear regression between deceleration and load was obtained, and this equation was transformed to compute F acc during the all-out sprint from the measure of acceleration: Repeated-Sprint Cycling Test Performances in many team sports ice hockey, handball, soccer, etc. Optimal Load of the Wingate Test The question of the optimal force of the Wingate test has mainly been studied empirically by repeating this test with different loads in various populations.

However, in many cases, this underestimation is probably low because the relationships between power output P versus F or V peak are quadratic: Power Output at the Crank Level Versus Dissipated Power The power output at the crank level is higher than the power dissipated at the flywheel level because of energy losses due to friction in the chain and sprockets. Effects of Toe Clips and Crank Length The use of toe clips improved all the performances peak power, mean power and fatigue index of a Wingate test performed with a load equal to 7.

Cycle Ergometer Design Simulations using forward dynamics studied the values of crank length, pelvic inclination, seat height, and pedal rate which maximize power output in cycling. Inertial Load It is possible to increase the resistance to acceleration due to flywheel inertia either by increasing the dimensions of the flywheel or by increasing the ratio between crank angular velocity and flywheel angular velocity gear ratio.

Eccentric versus Circular Chainring A circular chainring provides a constant radius from the crank center to the chain driving the wheel. Reliability The reliability of a test is defined as the consistency or reproducibility of performance when someone performs the test repeatedly [ ]. Correlation with Other Laboratory Tests Significant correlations have been found between maximal power on a cycle ergometre and vertical jump performances [ , — ] and the stair case test of Margaria [ ].

Correlation with Field Performances in Cycling In the following lines, it will be assumed 1 that there is no slippage of the wheel on the road; 2 that the rotational kinetic energy of the wheels and the energy loss in the tyres are negligible. Efficiency The first assumption underlying the use of power output on a cycle ergometer as an index of aerobic or anaerobic performance is that there is no large difference in efficiency between subjects.

Effects of Fatigue For cyclic exercise, maximal power output decreases rapidly as the duration of effort increases [ ]. Effect of Gender, Childhood, and Aging Maximal Power and Ageing Muscle mass increases with growth up to adulthood and decreases during the last decades sarcopenia.

Time of Day and Maximal Power In a first study, twelve subjects performed the Wingate test on 12 separate occasions duplicate measurements at Conclusions Power output peak power measured at the peak velocity V peak of an all-out test performed on a friction-braked ergometer depends on the braking force F. Relationships between Force and Velocity The topics of the first studies on muscle properties were not related to mechanics force, velocity, power but energetics maximal work, efficiency of muscular work, metabolism for the isolated muscle as well as man.

For example, Euler proposed the following formula [ ]: Biomechanics of Submaximal Cycling Exercises Cycling is a double task: These results were confirmed in the more recent studies on submaximal [ — ] and maximal cycling [ 32 , 35 ]. The onsets beginning and offsets end of the activities of the biarticular hamstrings muscles BF, SM, and ST are more variable. The contribution of the deep components of the hip flexors psoas , knee extensors vastus medialis , and plantar ankle flexors tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus can be studied by magnetic resonance activity level [ , ].

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