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But then he wakes up a situation comparable to the audience leaving the theatre —and everything is lost. Philautia and a parasite tell him that he should not listen to the dream, since all dreams are lies, etc. He strikes him with serious disease. But Cenodoxus reacts calmly: Et inanis est rei metus, Augere quam timor potest, demere nequit.
It is necessary that he is horrified. Since nothing can wake him up and make him realise his sin of pride, the angel finally has to give up and let him be sentenced by the Divine Court. The figure who could not be horrified by any means will finally serve the others as a dreadful reminder of their sins. In the first funeral scene, the sud- den intervention of the dead body is a huge surprise to the other figures— and to the audience. All parts of the bodies of Bruno, Laud- winus and Hugo react: Similar cascades of expressions of horror will be repeated when the body speaks a second and third time.
The feature of surprise cannot be used for these latter scenes any more, but now the fearful expectation of the figures is articulated before the respective scenes. Bruno and the others react to the horror in the way that Pontanus had expected the audience of a tragedy to react. They are the ideal audience within the play, while Cenodoxus, depicts the negative example of an audience that refuses to be affected by the drama. The audience of a tragedy—of a Jesuit tragedy—should feel involved, so that the horror experienced by the fictive or historical figure in the tragedy transfers to the people in the audience.
The tragedy presents the sins that make the protagonist fall, and it should warn the audience about this sin. They can only be warned if they use the emotions of pity and fear to cleanse their souls of the sin of pride and not of these emotions. The aim of Ecerinis, to teach a stoic attitude, is exactly the contrary of the aim of Cenodoxus, to put an end to stoicism and to teach virtues through emotions.
These striking differences in the poetology of the tragedy are due to different interpretations of Artistotle. Do I have to die? In a Christian con- text, however, horror and fear are always integrated into a concept of moral teaching. There is no senseless horror, but cruelty and fear are understood as a divine punishment for the hero, and b means for gaining virtue for the audience.
Monsters, here, are identified as any being not now believed to exist according the reigning scientific notions. Still, in the development of early modern tragedy we can observe a ten- dency to stress the supernatural elements supporting katharsis. The early tragedies have their heroes experience natural fear, pain and suffering. While the early human- ism adds the element of performance to the effectiveness of tragedy, Scaliger and Pontanus stress the element of pleasure.
In Cenodoxus, it also becomes clear that a natural hardship cannot move the hero; rather to the contrary, the hero and the spectator can only be moved by some horrifying encounter with the supernatural. Routledge , Die Lust am Grausen Weinheim and Basel: Heyne, , Works cited Sources Aristoteles. Edited and translated by Olof Gigon, 2 nd edition. Edited by Laurentius Minio-Paluello.
Edited and translated by Chris- tian Sinn. Edited by Rolf Tarot. Ars versificandi et carminum. Edited by Hans Rupprich. Edited by Luigi Padrin. Epistolae, seu sermones, Thesaurus Antiquitatum et historiarum Italiae. Pontanus, Jacobus, Poeticarum institutionum libri tres. Research Baumann, Hans D. Die Lust am Grausen.
Lou- vain and Munich: Leuven University Press, Lexikon des Mittelalters, edited by Gloria Avella-Widhalm. The Philosophy of Horror or Paradoxes of the Heart. New York and London: Walter de Gruyter, Tragedy and Comedy from Dante to Pseudo-Dante. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: Schnell und Steiner, Schnell und Stei- ner, Rome, Renovatio and Translatio Impe- rii. Center for Medieval and Early Renais- sance Studies, Praxis, Gnosis and the Shifting Knowledge of Literature Angela Locatelli, University of Bergamo The cultural dynamics of early modern literary canon creation can be per- ceived as representing complex negotiations of early modern subjectivities and politics.
Renaissance poets, schoolmasters and writers seem to self- consciously situate themselves in a strategic position for the elaboration of cultural and political consensus. Their shifting attitudes towards both the clas- sics and the contemporary vernacular languages and literatures will be ex- plored with reference to Ascham, Harrison, Sidney, Puttenham, Wilson, and Bacon. In their works, literature itself was undergoing an epistemic re- assessment as a discipline and as a tool of cultural mediation.
Debate on language, rhetoric, history, and poetry was widespread. If Plato had banned poets from his ideal republic, Renaissance poets, schoolmasters and critics seem, on the contrary, to self-consciously situate themselves in a key position in the elaboration of cultural and political con- sensus in the kingdom. And yet, eloquence could, at the same time, provide argumentative tools in favour of heterodoxy, demonstrated, for instance, in the revival of Pyrrhonist scepticism, as well as in theological dissidence.
Giuseppe Castorina and Vittoriana Villa Chieti: The value of English as a native tongue and the prestige of vernacular lit- erature were a favourite theme, but debate on these matters was far more than an academic exercise: In fact, like her father, Elizabeth promoted an efficient administrative class, no longer under eccle- 2 Nowadays universities and the mass media are still likewise asked to contribute to what we call governance.
Sestante, , 13— She was educated by one of the greatest humanists of the time, Roger Ascham, and her own cultivation in ars retorica was profitably dis- played in her Latin orations, but even more subtly put to use in her ability to elaborate strategies of consensus through a careful use of symbols. In fact, rhetoric and poetics aim to transcend their traditional boundaries and strictly academic context, and are frequently pictured as congenial to influential public figures rather than scholars.
Georges Edelen Washington D. Derrick New York and London: Garland Publishing Inc, It has not been firmly established. The innovative nature of the Puttenham work is indisputable. And because our chief purpose herein is for the learning of Ladies and young Gentlewomen, or idle Courtiers, desirous to become skilful in their owne mother tongue, and for their priuate recreation to now and then ditties of pleasure. I have found in divers smally learned courtiers a more sound stile, than in some professors of learning;.
Their teachings can bring humanity back to their original Edenic splendour, and prove indispensable in promoting civic obedience. Man in whom is powered the breath of life was made at the first being an euerliuing creature, unto the likeness of God, endued with reason, and ap- pointed Lorde ouer all other thinges liuing. Puttenham, The Arte of English Poesie , ed. English Reprints, , Dent, , 9— Men, who are full of savage and unreclaimed desires of profit, of lust, of re- venge; which as long as they give ear to precepts, to laws, to religion, sweetly touched with eloquence and persuasion of books.
Some, however, and Roger Ascham is prominent among them, seem to believe that the reverse is true: In The Schoolmaster he polemically writes that: For Stoickes, Anabaptistes, and Friers: Constable, , For all soch Authors, as be fullest of good matter and right iudgement in doc- trine, be likewise always, most proper in wordes, most apte in sentence, most plaine and pure in uttering the same. In other words, if wisdom precedes eloquence, the schoolmaster can teach only those who are already wise.
Let me also point out that this questionable perspective was widely shared, albeit proposed in different ways and contexts: The two di- verging outcomes are well known: Miranda is an excellent pupil and an obe- dient daughter, while Caliban, the rebel, uses language to curse. He represents the supposedly irreducible alien, the un-teachable, and therefore un-assimilated alterity of a racist ideology. This point of view has authoritative opponents albeit a minority , in early modern times. After we have persuaded our friend that the lawe is honest.
Sir Philip Sidney aptly writes: So as Amphion was sayde to move the stones with his Poetry, to build Thebes. And Orpheus to be listened to by beasts, indeed stony and beastly people. Sir Philip Sidney opposes the effectiveness of praxis to the abstract knowledge of gno- sis. He defends poetry for its greater if compared to other disciplines ca- pacity to move to virtuous action: For who will be taught, if hee be not moved with desire to be taught?
And what so much good doth that teaching bring forth, I speak still of morall doc- trine as that it mooveth one to doe that which it dooth teach? For as Aristotle sayth, it is not Gnosis, but Praxis must be the fruit. The primary task of Renaissance teachers, rhetoricians and poets was to promote consensus on specific behavioural protocols. This was not difficult for a community that was intrinsically homogeneous in terms of class and gender.
In fact, the naturalization of authority was the main concern of scholars and preach- ers, not less than that of prudent in the specific Aristotelian sense of the term phronesis, i. Promoting the cult of the sovereign as a symbol and metonymy of the rising nation was the main purpose of the crafty spectacularization of politics.
Kantorowitz and Adriana Cavarero have magisterially dealt 20 Sidney, Apologie, A Tradition in Transition, ed. Michigan State UP, , 19— Wof- ford Boston and New York: Bedford Books of St. The purpose of hu- manist education was essentially to instil civic virtues, i. The advantages of eloquence included the containment of dis- sent, and a bloodless preservation of rank, and of social and sexual roles. Would servauntes obey their masters, the sonne his father, the tenaunt his landlorde, the citizen his maiour, or Shirife: Wilson aptly reminds his readers that: Kantorowicz, I due corpi del re Torino: Einaudi, ; Adriana Cavarero, Corpo in figure Milano: The Canon as Cultural History for a Rising Nation Literature, and especially literature in English, is constructed by English humanists as a powerful means of upholding and disseminating a political and conceptual orthodoxy.
In this sense, the creation of a canon proved in- dispensable for the visibility of both literature and Nation. I will propose three exemplary instances of this. The already mentioned Elizabethan histo- rian William Harrison proudly outlines an English domestic literary tradi- tion, starting from the reign of Richard II. In particular, he praises the orthodox Protestant writers John Jewel and John Foxe for hav- ing turned the English language into an instrument of elegant and flexible prose. After complaining of the scarce consideration enjoyed by poetry in Eng- land, Sir Philip Sidney likewise praises Chaucer, Surrey, and Spenser.
So in the Italian language, the first that made it aspire to be a Treasure-house of Science were the Poets Dante, Boccacce, and Petrarch. So in our English were Gower and Chawcer. After whom, encouraged and delighted with theyr excellent fore-going, others have followed, to beautifie our mother tongue, as wel in the same kinde as in other Arts.
Chaucer, undoubtedly did excellently in hys Troylus and Cresseid. I ac- count the Mirrour of Magistrates, meetely furnished of beautiful parts; and in the Earle of Surries Liricks, many things tasting of a noble birth, and worthy of a noble mind. The Sheapeards Kalender, hath much Poetry in his Eclogues: That same framing of his stile, to an old rustick language, I dare not alowe, sith neyther Theocritus in Greeke, Virgill in Latine, nor Sanazar in Italian, did affect it.
When he deals with the English sonnet,34 he goes as far as asserting the superiority of English literature over Greek and Latin: Dent, , I hope to have convincingly argued that the works of poets, rhetoricians, and scholars clearly register the political and cultural anxieties of Tudor and Stuart England, but that they also provide variously inflected responses to the new cultural challenges.
Works cited Sources Ascham, Roger. Edited by Edward Arber. The Advancement of Learning. In The Prelude to Poetry: The Description of England. Edited by Georges Edelen. The Arte of English Poesie. An Apologie for Poetrie. Edited by Ernest Rhys, 9— The Arte of English Rhetorique. Edited by Thomas J. Functions of Italian Locations in Renaissance Drama, eds. Michele Marrapodi, et al. Manchester and New York: Manchester UP, , 69— See also the following closely related later contributions John Gillies, Shakespeare and the Geography of Difference Cambridge: Cambridge UP, ; Michele Marrapodi, ed.
Cul- tural Exchange and Intertextuality Newark: A Tradition in Transition, edited by Walter R. Michigan State University Press, Boston and New York: Shakespeare and the Geography of Difference. I due corpi del re. Cultural Connotations of an Italian Setting. Man- chester University Press, Cultural Exchange and Intertextuality. Delaware University Press, The argument is that female writers from this period use the ambiguity of love as a strategy to create points of resistance in a male hegemonic discourse.
Introduction A challenge for every critical analysis of the conditions for subject formation is the assessment of the relation between psychic structures and social norms. In this article I want to reflect on this relation by looking at the con- ditions for a feminine subject position in medieval and early modern culture where women are clearly subordinated to men, functioning as objects in the normative regulations of sexuality and as central signs in the hegemonic culture. By examples from the Comtesse de Dia, Christine de Pizan, Marguerite de Navarra, and Madame de Lafayette, I intend to show that their appropriation of the idealized version of courtly love can be understood as a point of resistance in the hegemonic culture.
My claim is that this resistance reveals a truth about the desiring subject that can be found in the heart of the courtly code itself, but which is most often re- pressed in favour of a romantic dream of love union. It is that in which the subject engages itself as human being. It has been claimed that the symbolic seems to situate social norms as inherent in the psyche, determining desire and gender identities and hence transforming the contingency of norms into a fundamental and con- servative structure. Bouchard and Sherry Simon New York: Cornell UP, , Genealogy can also be said to characterize the psychoanalytical attention to gaps and repressed dimensions in an apparently unbroken continuity.
Seuil, , Columbia UP, , 20— Seuil, , 73— Who is the Analyst? Debates on Women, Politics, and Culture in France, —, ed. Palgrave Macmil- lan, , Consequently, the social does not coincide with the symbolic.
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While the social is connected to power relations, establishing and maintaining norms, the symbolic produces desire that is fundamentally subversive in the sense that it bears witness of the limit of every subject position. This limit is also central in the Foucauldian discourse analysis. Foucault is indeed criticizing the psychoanalytic understand- ing of desire, which he describes as follows: The Will to Power, trans.
Robert Hurley Lon- don: Penguin, , The Division of Love A general feature in medieval and early modern regulations and discursive configurations of love is its division into an idealized and a debased form.
The corporeal love is said to desire without discrimination, i. In the realm of heavenly love women have no part and its desire is believed to lead to an improvement of both the lover and the be- loved. This division of love and accompanying moral evaluation has insisted throughout Western cultural history. There has been pointed out that the homosocial structure of the early medieval society underwent a radical transformation with the emergence of courtly love, which supplanted traditional male friendship by a heterosexual culture.
Stephen Jaeger, Ennobling Love: In Search of a Lost Sensibility Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, , — A psychoanalytic understanding refuted by Jaeger 16—18 of this inherent impossi- bility in courtly love can however show its actuality and ethical impact even for more modern discourses on love, as I will try to show throughout this study.
Autrement, , It could, however, be the other way around. Causse et Castelnau, , The object of desire in courtly love and its expansion in Western literature is indeed the woman, and it is she that henceforth comes to embody the di- vision of love. Petrarch formulates a revealing example of how love derives its double value from a feminine object in his autobiographical work Secre- tum: Women writers appropriate the idealized or elevated form of love with its concomitant debasement of corporeal love, in ways that differ from a passive reception of male desire.
Ricciardi, , Petrar- ca, The Secret, ed. William Draper New York: To men- tion just the most seminal ones for this study: U of Pennsylvania P, , Roberta L. Journal of Women in Culture and Society, no 1 My claim is that medieval and early modern women promote idealization—and self-restraint—as a strategy to counteract misogyny and maintain a subject position in the distribution of power. There is, however, no agreement as to why women became the object of this idealization when it first appeared in the courtly lyric at the end of 11th century.
Some scholars claim that it must be due to a short paren- thesis in the patriarchal order permitting women to administrate and inherit feudal property.
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Apparent links between the courtly lyric of the troubadours and Hispano-Arab poetry has also been noted. The idealized figure of the lady has furthermore been conceived as a code for the feudal relation. The love code functioned as a form of control of young unmarried knights at courts where married women and maidens constituted a potential threat to the social order in form of sexu- al temptations. Kelly-Gadol claims that the more or less tol- erated courtly adultery gave women a relative freedom within marital con- straints.
Women in European History, ed. Houghton Mifflin , ; William D. Perspective on the Women Troubadours Philadelphia: Penn- sylvania UP, , Lewis, The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition Oxford: Chicago UP, , 7— See also Jaeger, Ennobling Love, Gallimard, , — Duby is refer- ring to aristocratic family structures in northwestern France that do not fully apply to the South where the phenomenon of courtly love first appeared. Courtly love can be conceived as an invitation to extra-marital sexual relations, as a direct logical consequence of a system of arranged marriages, but it can also be conceived as a code of social refinement, which transforms a relation where women are inferior into a game where she is superior.
It is evident that women writers appropriate the code as a discursive relation where subject and object positions become interchangeable. Let us start with a quotation from a female troubadour, the Comtessa de Dia, who composed these lines probably at the end of the 12th or the beginning of the 13th centu- ry: See also Jaeger, Ennobling Love, 90— Privat, , It is rather obvious that what is at stake in these lines is the rules of the courtly code, which per defi- nition implies avoidance of the sexual act. It is always possible to speculate about what kind of sexual relations women and men actually had in medieval society, but the configuration of the lady as an inaccessible other, with the concomitant impediments to the love union, is as striking in the poems by the Comtessa de Dia as in her male counterparts.
Matilda Tomaryn Bruckner et al.
Garland Publishing, , 10— Paddington Press Ltd, , Strategic Appropriations Christine de Pizan — has been called the first professional female writer in France. She began her professional career as a courtly poet, but soon turned towards prose and allegorical writing with a more obvious polit- ical dimension. What she seeks in her reworking of the courtly love code is rather related to the potentiality of idealization. In the opening scene the narrator Christine, sits in her study cabinet and decides to read a book by an author named Matheolus, which she has heard is written in respect of women.
Reading it she discovers however a paradigmatic example of misogyny revealing to her that none of the other books she was studying previously contradicts its defamatory language: Her Life and Works New York: Persea Books, , See also Barbara K. The UP of Florida, , 4. The U of Georgia P, , — Smith, The Opposing Voice: Stanford UP, , UP of Florida, , Considering that humanists as Dante and Petrarch essentially based their configurations of love and women i.
Carrocci editore, , 42; The Book of the City of Ladies, trans. Firmin Didot, , It is no wonder then that their jealous enemies, those outrageous villains who have assailed them with various weapons, have been victorious in a war in which women have had no defence. In oth- er words it is not courtly love as such but once more the betrayal of the code, which causes a debasement of love and its object. Christine de Pizan uses idealization and the concomitant renunciation paradigm inherent in the courtly love code as a discursive strategy, which from a psychoanalytic point of view can be said to give imaginary support to a feminine subject position.
On the contrary, this kind of female virtue is a product of a male hegemonic social and cul- tural order, and one of its evident functions is to develop the moral perfec- tion of men. That is also to say that women in courtly love are reduced to objects in a process of cultural refinement. The point is nevertheless that this process bears witness of a distribution of power where women participated and transformed a male fantasy into a dialogue between the two sexes.
Translation here and in the following by the author, if not indicat- ed otherwise. Six Essays on Woman and Causality London: Verso, , Dialogues of Love Lacan describes love as a specific solution to the constitutive lack in every subject formation which the other is supposed to fulfil, and this imaginary wish for plenitude is manifest in dreams as well as in literary configurations.
As Freud describes it, resistance to sexual satisfaction in- creases the value of love and vice versa: Hogarth, , He makes very clear that he is talking of male desire: They may use it as an imaginary support for subject positions in a social order where they are usually designed as objects of love or of trade , but also in discursive relations that reveal not only the difficulty of reconciling virtue and sexuality but also the impossibility inherent in eve- ry dream of love as union, which I want to indicate by some examples from another female writer reworking the legacy of courtly love.
For many years Ama- dour serves her according to the courtly code but his aim is from the begin- ning to possess the young lady even though he is aware of the social differ- ence between them. Lacan, Feminine Sexuality, ed. Juliet Mitchel and Jacqueline Rose, trans. Macmillan, , Cholakian, Marguerite de Navarre: Mother of the Renaissance New York: Columbia UP, , Paraphrasing Foucault one can say that the renaissance queen puts courtly love into a process impeding it to work as a general sys- tem of domination.
Gallimard, , ; Marguerite de Navarre, The Heptameron, trans.
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Penguin Books, , Seuil, , ; The Ethics of Psychoanalysis. As we have seen, female medieval and early modern writers are more sceptical of this solution, or just more realistic. The most common types of women, he claims, are not interested in loving but only to 63 Ibid.
Norton, , This leaves him with a narcissistic need: That same night he was seized with a fever. On the other hand, in the novel, female narcissism, or amour-propre, and repudiation of passionate love, is played out in opposition to another domi- nant configuration of love in the 17th century, gallantry, as conflict between male power and female resistance. Let us listen to the explanation of her refusal given to her lover, the Duke de Nemours: If she had loved her husband his love would have diminished; if she gives her love to the duke he will stop loving her.
This is an insight that the dominating discourse on love covers up by creat- ing an inaccessible object or representing the aim of romance as a love un- ion. If the heroine gives her love away she will indeed become a female subject in the most servile sense of the term.
She was married to him as an object of trade in the aristocratic negotiation of power. My fate forbade my enjoying this bless- ing.
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Perhaps, too, his love only survived because he found none in me. But I should not have the same way of preserving yours; I believe that the obstacle you have met have made you constant. It appears to be a rhetorical question as she has already pointed to the vanity of this whish by revealing the inevitable decrease of passion had she acquiesced. Her poems articulate, rather than a deviation from the norm, a critique of the betrayal of the courtly code that discloses its dialogical structure as a social play where love and feudal relations are intrinsically connected.
The use of idealiza- tion as a discursive strategy giving an imaginary support to a feminine sub- ject position can also be connected to the courtly legacy during the Renais- sance, and the neoplatonic sublimation of love. In a Lacanian perspective this is actually the case for everyone who must find a place in the symbolic, which constitutes the sub- ject through a net of signifiers.
But if the male position in a patriarchal hegemony covers up the lack by creating an object—the idealized or debased woman—for his desire, the feminine position is the impediment to this imaginary dream of fulfilment and of union.
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Considering the examples we just looked at, the femi- nine position in the courtly tradition is more lucid than their male counter- parts in this respect. Songs of the Women Troubadours. La Citta delle Dame. Edited by Earl Jeffrey Richards. The Book of the City of Ladies. Translated by Earl Jeffrey Richards. Edited by Maurice Roy. Translated by John D. Edited by Nicole Cazauran. Translated by Paul Chilton. Penguin Books, Petrarca, Francesco. Edited by Guido Martellotti.
Storia e testi, Edited by Carol E. Translated by William Draper. Edited by Kenneth Dover. Cambridge University Press Research Altmann, Barbara K. The University Press of Florida, University of Cicago Press, The Origine and Meaning of Courtly Love: A Critical Study of Euro- pean Scholarship. Paddington Press Ltd, Journal of Women in Culture and Society.
The Psychic Life of Power. Kinship Between Life and Death. Causse et Castelnau, Marguerite de Navarre, Mother of the Renaissance. Women and the Origins of the Novel in France. Debates on Women, Politics, and Culture in France; —, ed. The History of Sexuality: The Will to Power. Translated by Robert Hurley. Edited by Donald F.
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