El metge (BIBLIOTECA NOAH GORDON) (Catalan Edition)

An empirical evaluation of the Italian case ," Telecommunications Policy , Elsevier, vol. Microeconomics , American Economic Association, vol. Does it matter for charities?

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Sven-Olof Fridolfsson and Thomas P. Towards a research agenda ," Research in Transportation Economics , Elsevier, vol. Eric van Damme, The first-price format ," Journal of Mathematical Economics , Elsevier, vol. Evidence from water supply and sewage projects ," Utilities Policy , Elsevier, vol. A new theory of price determination with implications for competition policy ," Discussion Paper , Tilburg University, Tilburg Law and Economic Center. Quantification and Simulation of Economic Processes. A study of the exposure problem in multi-unit auctions ," International Journal of Industrial Organization , Elsevier, vol.

Bad luck or bad design? Evidence from Discontinuities in Public Procurement Auctions? Centre for Industrial Economics, revised Feb Journal of Theoretical Economics , De Gruyter, vol. Gallen, School of Finance. Centre for Industrial Economics. Profitability and allocation of capacity ," Energy Policy , Elsevier, vol. Dynamic formation of networks ," Journal of Economic Theory , Elsevier, vol. Theory and experiments ," Games and Economic Behavior , Elsevier, vol.

New methods and evidence ," Journal of Financial Economics , Elsevier, vol. Dice Center for Research in Financial Economics. Open Bids ," Working Papers. Diacritics are also used to mark word stress, to indicate exceptional pronunciation of letters in certain words, and to distinguish words with same pronunciation homophones. Depending on the language, some letter-diacritic combinations may be considered distinct letters, e. Most languages are written with a mixture of two distinct but phonetically identical variants or "cases" of the alphabet: In particular, all Romance languages capitalize use uppercase for the first letter of the following words: The Romance languages do not follow the German practice of capitalizing all nouns including common ones.

Unlike English, the names of months, days of the weeks, and derivatives of proper nouns are usually not capitalized: However, each language has some exceptions to this general rule. The tables below provide a vocabulary comparison that illustrates a number of examples of sound shifts that have occurred between Latin and Romance languages, along with a selection of minority languages. Words are given in their conventional spellings.

In addition, for French the actual pronunciation is given, due to the dramatic differences between spelling and pronunciation. English has developed over the course of more than 1, years. There are more people who have learned it as a second language than there are native speakers.

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Although the high degree of influence from these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern English is widely acknowledged, most specialists in language contact do not consider English to be a true mixed language. Old English was divided into four dialects: Old English is very different from Modern English and difficult for 21st-century English speakers to understand. The translation of Matthew 8: John of Trevisa, ca.

By the 12th century Middle English was fully developed, integrating both Norse and Norman features; it continued to be spoken until the transition to early Modern English around In the Middle English period, the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated, and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as Chaucer. The next period in the history of English was Early Modern English — The Great Vowel Shift explains many irregularities in spelling since English retains many spellings from Middle English, and it also explains why English vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages.

Even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from Modern English: Many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of Shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent the distinct characteristics of Early Modern English. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication.

A major feature in the early development of Modern English was the codification of explicit norms for standard usage, and their dissemination through official media such as public education and state-sponsored publications. Within Britain, non-standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised, leading to the quick spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes.

Earlier English did not use the word "do" as a general auxiliary as Modern English does; at first it was only used in question constructions where it was not obligatory. Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues e. British English is also undergoing change under the influence of American English, fuelled by the strong presence of American English in the media and the prestige associated with the US as a world power. The countries in which English is spoken can be grouped into different categories by how English is used in each country.

English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. Kachru bases his model on the history of how English spread in different countries, how users acquire English, and the range of uses English has in each country.

The three circles change membership over time. Countries with large communities of native speakers of English the inner circle include Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, where a significant minority speaks English.

They have many more speakers of English who acquire English in the process of growing up through day by day use and listening to broadcasting, especially if they attend schools where English is the medium of instruction. Varieties of English learned by speakers who are not native speakers born to English-speaking parents may be influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other languages spoken by those learners. The standard English of the inner-circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of English in the outer-circle countries.

In the three-circles model, countries such as Poland, China, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Egypt, and other countries where English is taught as a foreign language make up the "expanding circle". In these countries, although English is not used for government business, its widespread use puts them at the boundary between the "outer circle" and "expanding circle". English is unusual among world languages in how many of its users are not native speakers but speakers of English as a second or foreign language. Many users of English in the expanding circle use it to communicate with other people from the expanding circle, so that interaction with native speakers of English plays no part in their decision to use English.

Pie chart showing the percentage of native English speakers living in "inner circle" English-speaking countries. Native speakers are now substantially outnumbered worldwide by second-language speakers of English not counted in this chart. The norms of standard written English are maintained purely by the consensus of educated English-speakers around the world, without any oversight by any government or international organisation. American listeners generally readily understand most British broadcasting, and British listeners readily understand most American broadcasting.

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Most English speakers around the world can understand radio programmes, television programmes, and films from many parts of the English-speaking world. Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons. As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the s and s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies.

While the European Union EU allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the Union, in practice English is the main working language of EU organisations. In a official Eurobarometer poll, 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland , could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents.

This has led some scholars to develop the study of English as an auxiliary language. The increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words being assimilated into the vocabularies of other languages. In a single-syllable word, a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened: The pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker's accent.

The vowels are represented with symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet; those given for RP are standard in British dictionaries and other publications. In GA, vowel length is non-distinctive. Because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable, vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis. An English syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound. Syllable onset and coda start and end are optional. The consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted, as is the order in which they may appear.

Onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters: Clusters of obstruents always agree invoicing, and clusters of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of articulation are prohibited. Furthermore, several consonants have limited distributions: Stress is a combination of duration, intensity, vowel quality, and sometimes changes in pitch. Stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases, so that a compound word receives a single stress unit, but the corresponding phrase has two: Stressed syllables are pronounced longer, but unstressed syllables syllables between stresses are shortened.

Varieties of English vary the most in pronunciation of vowels. Some differences between the various dialects are shown in the table "Varieties of Standard English and their features". English distinguishes at least seven major word classes: Some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns, and subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordinators, and add the class of interjections. The seven word classes are exemplified in this sample sentence: English nouns are only inflected for number and possession. New nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding.

Mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier, e. Orthographically the possessive -s is separated from the noun root with an apostrophe. They can also include modifiers such as adjectives e. Regardless of length, an NP functions as a syntactic unit.

A definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor, whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known. The noun must agree with the number of the determiner, e. Determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase. Adjectives modify a noun by providing additional information about their referents. In English, adjectives come before the nouns they modify and after determiners.

English pronouns conserve many traits of case and gender inflection. The reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase e. Prepositional phrases PP are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns, e. Prepositions have a wide range of uses in English.

They are used to describe movement, place, and other relations between different entities, but they also have many syntactic uses such as introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs. Traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded, for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form, "with her", "to me", "for us".

English verbs are inflected for tense and aspect and marked for agreement with third person singular subject. Auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation, and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence. Most verbs have six inflectional forms. The primary forms are a plain present, a third person singular present, and a preterite past form. The secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive, a gerund-participle and a past participle.

English has two primary tenses, past preterit and non-past. English does not have a morphologised future tense.

I was running , and compound tenses such as preterite perfect I had been running and present perfect I have been running. There is also a subjunctive and an imperative mood, both based on the plain form of the verb i. Finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterit form. In clauses with auxiliary verbs, they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause.

The phrase then functions as a single predicate. In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb, but in writing it is written as a separate word. Instead, they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement, i. The function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs.

In most sentences, English only marks grammatical relations through word order. The example below demonstrates how the grammatical roles of each constituent is marked only by the position relative to the verb:. An exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun, in which case it is doubly marked, both by word order and by case inflection, where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form, and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form. The example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject is represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun:.

In English a sentence may be composed of one or more clauses, that may, in turn, be composed of one or more phrases e. A clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents, such as any NPs and PPs. Within a sentence, one clause is always the main clause or matrix clause whereas other clauses are subordinate to it. Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause. English syntax relies on auxiliary verbs for many functions including the expression of tense, aspect, and mood.

Auxiliary verbs form main clauses, and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb. Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs. A passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase, and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase. Who saw the cat? To whose house did you go last night? Because of the strict SVO syntax, the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence.

In cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence, frequently the topic is promoted to subject position through syntactic means. Through the use of these complex sentence constructions with informationally vacuous subjects, English is able to maintain both a topic-comment sentence structure and a SVO syntax. Discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences. While discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of English, they are also used in written and formal registers.

Due to its status as an international language, English adopts foreign words quickly, and borrows vocabulary from many other sources. Many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates of first use of various words in English, and the sources of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analysis of linguistic corpus data becomes available. English forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes. English, besides forming new words from existing words and their roots, also borrows words from other languages.

This adoption of words from other languages is commonplace in many world languages, but English has been especially open to borrowing of foreign words throughout the last 1, years. But one of the consequences of long language contact between French and English in all stages of their development is that the vocabulary of English has a very high percentage of "Latinate" words derived from French, especially, and also from Latin and other Romance languages. French words from various periods of the development of French now make up one-third of the vocabulary of English.

English has also borrowed many words directly from Latin, the ancestor of the Romance languages, during all stages of its development. Latin or Greek are still highly productive sources of stems used to form vocabulary of subjects learned in higher education such as the sciences, philosophy, and mathematics. English has a strong influence on the vocabulary of other languages. Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages. The great majority of literary works in Old English that survive to today are written in the Roman alphabet.

These situations have prompted proposals for spelling reform in English. Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one-to-one correspondence in standard English spelling, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetic changes in derived words, and word accent are reliable for most English words. For the vowel sounds of the English language, however, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular. The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read can be challenging in English. It can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including Italian, Spanish, and German.

The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud. As the place where English first evolved, the British Isles, and particularly England, are home to the most diverse dialects. The spread of RP also known as BBC English through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural England to recede, as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of traits from local dialects.

Nonetheless this attrition has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar and vocabulary, and in fact, only 3 percent of the English population actually speak RP, the remainder speaking regional accents and dialects with varying degrees of RP influence. Within each of these regions several local subdialects exist: Having been the centre of Danish occupation during the Viking Invasions, Northern English dialects, particularly the Yorkshire dialect, retain Norse features not found in other English varieties.

Since the 15th century, southeastern England varieties centred around London, which has been the centre from which dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects. The spread of Cockney features across the south-east led the media to talk of Estuary English as a new dialect, but the notion was criticised by many linguists on the grounds that London had influencing neighbouring regions throughout history. Scots itself has a number of regional dialects.

North American English is fairly homogeneous compared to British English.

AAVE is commonly stigmatised in North America as a form of "broken" or "uneducated" English, as are white Southern accents, but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of English with their own norms shared by a large speech community. Additionally, some new words and collocations have emerged from the language, which come from the need to express concepts specific to the culture of the nation e.

Over million population of Nigerians speak English. Each of these areas are home both to a local variety of English and a local English based creole, combining English and African languages.

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Most Caribbean varieties are based on British English and consequently, most are non-rhotic, except for formal styles of Jamaican English which are often rhotic. Jamaican English differs from RP in its vowel inventory, which has a distinction between long and short vowels rather than tense and lax vowels as in Standard English. There are no items for this category. Verbs 0 There are no items for this category.

Adverbs 0 There are no items for this category. Adjectives 3 unromantic , non-romantic , nonromantic adj. Fuzzynyms 2 relationship adj. Synonyms 0 There are no items for this category.

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Antonyms 3 romanticistic , romanticist , romantic adj. Romance languages in Europe. Romance languages in the World. Languages of the World, Sixteenth Edition. Observatoire Linguistique, Linguasphere Press. A normal evolution to what extent? Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies. Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain". The American Journal of Philology. Grant and Cutler Ltd. The same happens with other prepositions: De Latino Sine Flexione.

A North Romance Language: The Central Italian neuters". An introduction to Old French. Modern Language Association of America. Persian agreement mismatch construction". Stougaard Jensen, , —2. Not clearly distinct in meaning from the first normal preterite, cf. An Introduction to Old Occitan. Please sign in again so you can continue to borrow titles and access your Loans, Wish list, and Holds pages. If you're still having trouble, follow these steps to sign in.

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