West of Babylon

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The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of Marduk , but by the reign of Darius III , over-taxation and the strain of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the destabilization of the surrounding region. A native account of this invasion notes a ruling by Alexander not to enter the homes of its inhabitants.

Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a center of learning and commerce. The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon. With this deportation, Babylon became insignificant as a city, although more than a century later, sacrifices were still performed in its old sanctuary. It maintained its own culture and people, who spoke varieties of Aramaic , and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon.

Examples of their culture are found in the Babylonian Talmud , the Gnostic Mandaean religion, Eastern Rite Christianity and the religion of the prophet Mani. In the mid-7th century, Mesopotamia was invaded and settled by the expanding Muslim Empire, and a period of Islamization followed. Babylon was dissolved as a province and Aramaic and Church of the East Christianity eventually became marginalized. Ibn Hauqal mentions a small village called Babel in the tenth century; subsequent travelers describe only ruins.

Babylon is mentioned in medieval Arabic writings as a source of bricks, [19] said to have been used in cities from Baghdad to Basra. European travelers in many cases could not discover the city's location, or mistook Fallujah for it. Twelfth-century traveler Benjamin of Tudela mentions Babylon but it is not clear if he really went there. Others referred to Baghdad as Babylon or New Babylon and described various structures encountered in the region as the Tower of Babel. Rich , Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon , pp.

The eighteenth century saw an increasing flow of travelers to Babylon, including Carsten Niebuhr and Pierre-Joseph de Beauchamp , as well as measurements of its latitude. Beauchamp's memoir, published in English translation in , provoked the British East India Company to direct its agents in Baghdad and Basra to acquire Mesopotamian relics for shipment to London. Austen Henry Layard made some soundings during a brief visit in before abandoning the site.

However, many of the fruits of their work were lost when a raft containing over forty crates of artifacts sank into the Tigris river. The next excavation was conducted by Hormuzd Rassam on behalf of the British Museum. Work began in , continuing until , and was prompted by widespread looting of the site. Using industrial scale digging in search of artifacts, Rassam recovered a large quantity of cuneiform tablets and other finds. The zealous excavation methods, common at the time, caused significant damage to the archaeological context.

A team from the German Oriental Society led by Robert Koldewey conducted the first scientific archaeological excavations at Babylon. The work was conducted daily from until Primary efforts of the dig involved the temple of Marduk and the processional way leading up to it, as well as the city wall. Lenzen's work dealt primarily with the Hellenistic theatre, and Schmid focused on the temple ziggurat Etemenanki. Additional work in — concentrated on the area surrounding the Ishara and Ninurta temples in the Shu-Anna city-quarter of Babylon.

During the restoration efforts in Babylon, the Iraqi State Organization for Antiquities and Heritage conducted extensive research, excavation and clearing, but wider publication of these archaeological activities has been limited. The site of Babylon has been a cultural asset to Iraq since the creation of the modern Iraqi government in Babylonian images periodically appear on Iraqi postcards and stamps. In the s a replica of the Ishtar gate and a reconstruction of Ninmakh temple were built on site.

These features included the Southern Palace of Nebuchandnezzar, with rooms, five courtyards, and a meter entrance arch. The project also reinforced the Processional Way, the Lion of Babylon , and an amphitheater constructed in the city's Hellenistic era. In the government minted a set of seven coins displaying iconic features of Babylon.

A Babylon International Festival was held in September , and annually thereafter until excepting and , to showcase this work. Proposed reconstruction of the Hanging Gardens and the great ziggurat never took place. Hussein installed a portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins and inscribed his name on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar.

One frequent inscription reads: These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after Hussein's downfall. When the Gulf War ended, Hussein wanted to build a modern palace called Saddam Hill over some of the old ruins, in the pyramidal style of a ziggurat. In , he intended the construction of a cable car line over Babylon, but plans were halted by the invasion of Iraq. Following the invasion of Iraq , the area around Babylon came under the control of US troops, before being handed over to Polish forces in September Conway of the I Marine Expeditionary Force were criticized for building the military base "Camp Alpha", with a helipad and other facilities on ancient Babylonian ruins during the Iraq War.

US forces have occupied the site for some time and have caused irreparable damage to the archaeological record. John Curtis described how parts of the archaeological site were levelled to create a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavy vehicles. Curtis wrote of the occupation forces:. They caused substantial damage to the Ishtar Gate, one of the most famous monuments from antiquity [ A US Military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum".

In April , Colonel John Coleman, former Chief of Staff for the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command. However, he also claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage by other looters. Two museums and a library, containing replicas of artifacts and local maps and reports, were raided and destroyed.

In May , the provincial government of Babil reopened the site to tourists, but not many have come. An oil pipeline runs through an outer wall of the city. Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the appearance of Babylon was largely a mystery, and typically envisioned by Western artists as a hybrid between ancient Egyptian, classical Greek, and contemporary Ottoman culture. Due to Babylon's historical significance as well as references to it in the Bible , the word "Babylon" in various languages has acquired a generic meaning of a large, bustling diverse city.

Another story is given in Genesis 11, which describes a united human race, speaking one language, migrating to Shinar to establish a city and tower—the Tower of Babel. God halts construction of the tower by scattering humanity across the earth and confusing their communication so they are unable to understand each other in the same language. Babylon appears throughout the Hebrew Bible , including several prophecies and in descriptions of the destruction of Jerusalem and subsequent Babylonian captivity. Consequently, in Jewish tradition, Babylon symbolizes an oppressor against which righteous believers must struggle [ citation needed ].

In Christianity , Babylon symbolizes worldliness and evil.

Nebuchadnezzar, sometimes conflated with Nabonidus, appears as the foremost ruler in this narrative. The Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible refers to Babylon many centuries after it ceased to be a major political center.

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The city is personified by the " Whore of Babylon ", riding on a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns, and drunk on the blood of the righteous. Some scholars of apocalyptic literature believe this New Testament "Babylon" to be a dysphemism for the Roman Empire. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Babylon disambiguation. It is not to be confused with Babalu.

RA KI [1] Aramaic: Muslim conquest of Persia.

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From the accounts of modern travellers, I had expected to have found on the site of Babylon more, and less, than I actually did. Less, because I could have formed no conception of the prodigious extent of the whole ruins, or of the size, solidity, and perfect state, of some of the parts of them; and more, because I thought that I should have distinguished some traces, however imperfect, of many of the principle structures of Babylon.

I imagined, I should have said: There stood the palace, and this most assuredly was the tower of Belus. They together with the Elamites to the east had originally been prevented from taking control of the Akkadian states of southern Mesopotamia by the intervention of powerful Assyrian kings of the Old Assyrian Empire during the 21st and 20th centuries BC, intervening from northern Mesopotamia. However, when the Assyrians turned their attention to expanding their colonies in Asia Minor , the Amorites eventually began to supplant native rulers across the region.

Accessed 15 December Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census , St. David's University Press "etext. Archived from the original on See Historical urban community sizes. The Ancient Mesopotamian City. Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Auflage, Putbus , p. In Hess, Richard S. I studied inscriptions from before the flood: Origins"; in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. The Archaeology of the Bible Lands.

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BBC Publications , pp. Cuneiform and Classical Sources Reconciled "; Iraq 56, Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. Retrieved 18 March Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume It was long been noted that many of Sumu-abum's year names are identical or virtually identical to the year names of Sumu-la-el, whom we know for certain was king of Babylon.

With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World , pp. University of California Press. When new territory was conquered or a rebellious vassal crushed, an increased imperial presence in the trouble spot was often complemented by the removal of large numbers of the indigenous population to the imperial core, effectively breaking up the rebellious population and reducing the potential for future resistance. The majority of the immigrant population were not slaves Yamauchi Retrieved July 23, Archived from the original on 6 December Naylor; Dahia Ibo Shabaka Holman and Company, Weisbach, Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Bergamini, "Levels of Babylon Reconsidered", Mesopotamia , vol.

Bergamini, "Excavations in Shu-anna Babylon ", Mesopotamia , vol. The Rape of Mesopotamia: