Urban Design: Green Dimensions

Description In Green Dimensions, Cliff Moughtin relates sustainable development and green design to the realm of urban design and development.

Urban Design: Green Dimensions

Examining regional and local frameworks for design and planning, this book shows how sustainable urban design can be implemented on every scale. Working from a strong theoretical base, the author uses case studies and discusses policy developments, in order to challenge the conventional wisdom on sustainable design.

The book provides a rounded discussion of the application and suitability of current practice, and predicts future design needs. Updating the reader on topics such as energy efficiency, sustainable city forms and the culture of new urbanism, this completely revised and restructured second edition also includes brand new chapters on the Urban Park and Bio-diversity. The Best Books of Check out the top books of the year on our page Best Books of Product details Format Hardback pages Dimensions x x Learn more about Amazon Giveaway.

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No doubt other disciplines profit they pre-empt the seashore and could legitimately cite their own lists of sterilise the landscape, fell the great forests, people with deep concerns for the fill protective marshes, build cynically in environment, many of them working long the flood plain.

The mood of causes of environmental problems and in environmentalism quickened with Rachel the development of green principles. Hardin argued architecture and planning: How far The planning and design. The book has been February, To some extent these criticisms have been addressed in Beyond the An important contributory factor affecting Limits Meadows et al. The Limits to the deterioration of the environment is Growth did attempt, however, to study some population growth.

The population environmental analysis, all being common of the planet was approximately 0. It was then growing at approximately 0. In , the later translated into English as The Skeptical global population was 3.

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From to the for human welfare: Despite this fall in Lovejoy and Schneidr in Scientific American, population growth rate, the absolute January, Like Meadows in his growth will remain nearly as high as Limits to Growth, Lomborg may have levels in the last decades of the twentieth overstated his case.

Unfortunately, his century, simply because the population thesis has given credence to the views of base rate keeps expanding: Clearly, population pressures 10 billion by Europe, North America and Japan, Such population movements will not be population growth is zero or in some cases without conflict. While poverty nations of the developing world.

Three- results in environmental stress, the major quarters of global population growth occurs cause of environmental deterioration is an in the urban centres of these poorer nations, unsustainable pattern of consumption and and half of this increase is by natural growth production, particularly in the within cities. Nevertheless, a reduction in exists and is indeed growing in all cities of the population growth rates through education world, it characterizes aspects of the rapidly and family planning is of great importance growing cities of the developing countries.

The problems United Nations, Habitat, Fifteen years on million people live in countries that no from the time when Pearce wrote those longer have enough cropland on which to words, global conditions have, if anything, grow their own food, and million people deteriorated. The development of a global live in regions prone to chronic drought: It may also be both wise Developed World, which in part is related and profitable to explore ways in which to the way in which we build and use food production within city limits can cities.

Most of this discussed fully in many texts, so they will growth will be in cities of the Developing be dealt with only in summary here, and World. Bongaarts believes that the only where they have some bearing on the demand for feeding this extra population, development of sustainable urban form will be a great challenge: Atmospheric probably correct in claiming that the pollution includes damage to the ozone overall food production can be increased layer, acid rain and the greenhouse effect.

This increase in less favourable for irrigation, than radiation has the potential to cause existing intensively farmed land. Water — adverse effects upon plants, animals and as we read constantly in our daily human beings. Acid rain can do immense newspapers — is in increasingly short harm, particularly to forest areas. There supply, while its demand grows not only is some evidence of improvements in for purposes of irrigation.

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The both of these areas, though much still environmental cost of this increased food remains to be achieved. It further deforestation, loss of species, soil is also true that problems that have erosion and pollution from pesticides and immediate political appeal or obvious fertilizer runoff as farming intensifies and economic gain are most likely to receive new land is brought into production. However, the bulk of recoverable lobby for change. The greenhouse effect conventional oil resources appear to lie in the upon climate change is one area, which Middle East, a politically unstable part of the has not so far received such powerful world, as the recent war in Iraq popular support.

The economic pain demonstrates. Much of the rest of the from curbing atmospheric pollution is recoverable resources lies offshore and in all too apparent, while the gains are other difficult or environmentally fragile not immediately appreciated. Nuclear energy, which currently terms, we continue with economic contributes about 6 percent of global energy policies and land use practices which production, has long-term problems of increase atmospheric emissions, pollution and the storage of waste material. There are also other problems with nuclear energy. Problems with both oil and by the burning of fossil fuels in the creation nuclear power presents urban designers with of energy to support city life.

This energy is the challenge of developing urban structures used: Oil is the most versatile and most conditions have deteriorated: Above all, abating acid rain, although much still needs there is great uncertainty about the ways in to be done. And major efforts are under way which man will respond to any changes to to stem deforestation and to address the the environment that may occur.

Temperatures in may increase by 1. The first in the press added to the concern: Scientists are, however, more possibilities so that we could be lucky and see circumspect. Since a large body of the scientific the nature and effect of these changes to community believe that climate change in climate. For example, there is uncertainty part is due to human activities, a about the exact trace gas emissions which reasonable behaviour would be for will enter the atmosphere and the precise fuel humankind to take preventative measures.

Environment and Development, This definition contains three key ideas: There seems to be widespread agreement that Growth is a physical or quantitative solving global problems means the adoption expansion of the economic system, while of policies and programmes that lead to development is a qualitative concept: Sustainable concerned with cultural, social and development, however, has many different economic progress. The shades of introduces the ideas of distribution of meaning given to sustainable development resources: World Commission on Environment and There is also a great danger that the concept Development, The pursuit of a pursue their aspirations, many luxuries sustainable future for the human race in being defined by such groups as needs.

These environmental degradation; they must also environmental costs, furthermore, will be politically acceptable in the jurisdiction increase dramatically if the living conditions where they are proposed. A choice may be inevitable: It concerns the redistribution ecosystems; and to use frugally and wisely of resources both within and between non-renewable resources.

In summary, the nations. Sustainable development means a definition of sustainable development movement towards greater social equity derived from Brundtland implies both inter- both for moral and practical reasons.

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The pervades some parts of the developing principle of futurity is seen as maintaining a world. This is to meet the Brundtland generational equity: It generations to meet their needs and was the United Nations Conference on the aspirations. The second principle is Human Environment which fostered the concerned with costing the environment. The idea of stewardship in It is difficult generations. This attitude is best summed to identify the minimum environmental up by a quotation attributed to the North stock which should be maintained for future American Indian: Elkin in the early s thought that it the Earth from our parents, but have was clear that: A decade later, there seems little a better environment, particularly where it evidence to show that the environmental is degraded or socially deprived.

It requires stock has made a sudden recovery. There has of any particular generation the wisdom: Sustainability constraints Landscape and Sustainability by Benson are difficult to define with any precision. It is and Roe eds. Amongst the growing body necessary to avoid breaching environmental of literature on this topic, a number of thresholds. By viewpoint of practice: How many of these exercises support systems.

Applying this definition to in participation involve real power being the subject matter of this book would make devolved to the general voting public is the basic requirements of a sustainable city debateable. The Brundtland which formed the basis of planning guidance Report World Commission on Environment Department of the Environment, b , and Development, Pearce suggested ways in Department of the Environment and the which the constraints could be introduced Department of Transport a. The into the economic system of the United document states that: This calls for While full of fine sentiment, the White Paper measures to reduce CO2 emissions to paid little attention to the argument devel- levels by If the transport sector is to oped in the Pearce Report.

Consequently, contribute to this reduction, there are three no new lead was given in this policy area. A Good Practice Guide Department of the Environment, a has Item 1 is simply advocating more a section on Environmental Issues which energy-efficient urban form, and item 3 attempts to show how concerns about is also without political pain — it is the environmental issues can be reflected in a straightforward suggestion to improve Development Plan.

Item 2 was — and still balance between economic growth, remains — the area with the greatest potential technological development and for short-term reduction in CO2 emissions. It does not This course of action, however, causes the attempt to define the point of balance, nor most difficulty for a conservative does it enter the thorny argument about Government with a prejudice in favour of the development versus growth.

The section on road lobby and a propensity to support a energy goes a little further, incorporating roads solution to transport problems. Item 2 in essence polls, which caused a re-think of a perfectly means the development of an efficient, cheap reasonable, environmentally friendly, petrol- and effective integrated public transport taxing policy. The development of such a public declared moratorium on road building soon transport system means the transfer of after coming to power in has taken a resources from the car user to those who use setback with recent announcements for public transport.

The transfer of resources further motorway-widening and other major may take two forms. First, it may mean road-building projects. For those who higher costs for the motorist in terms of believe that it is impossible to build your way petrol prices, road taxes and road pricing: Second, announcements, along with transport plans, the transfer of resources takes the more appear to weaken the resolve to tackle the direct form of the development of costly apparently intractable problem of strategic public transport infrastructure at the expense transport.

The introduction of road pricing of road improvements. One simple and effective way in which framework for considering Local Agenda 21 the car user in this country was asked to pay for the United Kingdom: It is closer to the Brundtland Government in the mids as a clever report than earlier documents originating in procedure to increase the price of petrol the UK, discussing equity in these terms: The Conservative opposi- those of the earlier Pearce report Some might say that, fundamentally, We have seen the Figure 1. The UK Programme; weakness of this approach in the attempted the compact city and Sustainable Development: The UK implementation of the petrol price accelerator — a policy which was a direct outcome of this philosophy.

The report of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution was also published in The Government published, in , A better quality of Life: In Towards an Urban Renaissance the report of the Urban Task Force very clearly sets out the thinking on the design of sustainable urban form. The current orthodoxy sees the sustainable city or, more accurately, the city that approximates to a sustainable form, as a compact and flexible structure in which the parts are connected to each other and to the whole, with a clearly articulated public space.

The public realm connects the different quarters to each other across the city, while also linking individual homes to workplaces, schools, social institutions and places of recreation. The effect of this compact layout is to establish a clear urban boundary, contain urban sprawl and reduce car use.

It is not the only the compact city viewpoint. The establishment ideological viewpoint. The literature on consider itself steward rather than master. Growth Meadows, as an axiom: Green ideology Western thought. Mind, reason, spirit order, also questions the current dominant public and permanence have been considered paradigm with its foundation in The masculine, while ignorance the occult , Enlightenment, science, technology and the body, emotion, chaos, private and change objective of rational analysis Capra, Dobson, sustainable development will vary from place to place and from time to time in any given Ecologism goes beyond human- place.

Sustainable development policies instrumental or paternalistic care for the must be politically acceptable, which in a natural world, and argues that the democracy means welcomed — or at least environment has an independent value that tolerated — by the electorate. In Britain, should guarantee its existence. Such a Third World debt is a welcome move in that paradigm should be based upon holism — a direction.

Both main parties are committed systems view of the world — and to economic growth as the engine for interconnectedness rather than the present sustainable development. Clearly, a mechanistic and reductionist view of nature. While this development along the spectrum of greens book will be informed by political realism, from the paler tints associated with the nevertheless it is surely not too much to establishment view towards the full-bodied expect political leadership on issues other saturated hue of Green associated with than war and international terror.

It is such as subsidies or tax breaks for possible to have economic growth more environmentally friendly services, with Gross National Product — GNP and to use pollution charges, and levies such as road up fewer resources. There are very good charging for those activities that are less reasons as to why we should prefer this environmentally friendly. Failure into an environmentally friendly good or to keep GNP high shows up in the misery of service, for example, where waste products unemployment and in poverty.

Anti- are recycled and used to support new growth advocates are embarrassingly industrial outlets. Both strategies assume silent or unrealistic on how they would that individuals act alone to calculate their solve problems of unemployment and advantage from making market choices: A major problem for sustainable stimulated by price signals. This perspective development is the way that values are also confuses prices and values, so that we attached to the environment.

They fre- it is argued, inevitably carry costs for quently have distributive consequences and economic growth, and with it the level of causes which carry political consequences for consumption. Just how environmental costs are quantified and how GNP takes Clearly, sustainable development without such costs into account or how it is the political pain that would accompany a adjusted to reflect more closely reduction of resources or a redistribution of the development of human well-being is existing resources requires some level of debatable.

The first is the method by environmental quality or a decrease in non- which economic growth or well-being is renewable resources. In other situations, measured. The second concerns how we conservation of the environment may measure the use and abuse of mean the loss of the possibility of environmental resources. We have seen how economic growth: A rise in GNP of this nature may be the most that is possible in the would seem to be an improvement in living present political climate.

In national accounting, the cost of have long practice in the art of maintaining the depreciation of man-made capital is sustainable yields from the environment by recorded, while the value of the harvesting at a rate that is equal to or less degradation in the environment or the than the regenerative capacity of the crop. Using up natural stock would result in the disappearance of resources is equivalent to the capital the resource, and with it the industry. This depreciation of machines and infrastructure.

National economies, however, would be undiminished: The over-exploited North Sea fishing grounds may be a better analogy for industrial growth without regard to stocks: The decimation Figure 1. For example, the use of fossil fuels farm was established in Bellacorck, Mayo, should be accompanied by the development Ireland, on cut-away-bogland: Interesting neighbour, a more traditional generator experiments in the development of Figures 1.

The power station is , but they will also help us to meet our fed by local peat bogs aim of generating 20 per cent of our energy from renewables by Projects like this are part of the UK energy strategy, but they are thought to be overoptimistic according to the report State of the Nation quoted in Planning, 11th July, This directive has been absorbed into Planning Law in the UK. A useful tool used to England and Wales Regulations The determine negative environmental impacts is regulations broaden the range of an Environmental Impact Assessment EIA.

Moreover, an developments important innovation introduced in this Regulation is the introduction of statutory size thresholds, which have been reduced to half an acre. Environmental considerations have now become important for projects such as shopping centres, car parks, multiplex cinemas, leisure-centres and sports stadia.

The EIA procedure is potentially of great significance for achieving a sustainable urban environment of quality Moughtin et al. There is a need to use already-developed areas in the most efficient and effective way, while making them more attractive places in which to live and work. Conservation area Figure 1.

Group of buildings designed by Clough Williams-Ellis Figure 1. Group of buildings designed by Clough 1. The towns, for reasons other than narrowly concept of the conservation area, which has aesthetic Figures 1. Where new been so successful in the past in places such development is necessary, the pattern of as Cushendun and Cushendall, Northern such development and its structures should 1.

Conservation travel between essential activities and also area in the operation of the buildings. Sustainable development places a premium on the conservation of natural resources, wildlife and habitat protection. Sustainable development also assumes high degrees of self-sufficiency at all levels of settlement structure. Part of this self-sufficiency is in food production and waste disposal. It may be prudent to conceptualize urban structure as integral to the bioregion and the countryside as integral to the urban Figure 1. Conservation along with its capacity for food area production — would be considered to penetrate right to the heart of the city.

In addition, It is generally accepted that global warming energy is used to make building materials, to is happening, and that the protective ozone transport them to the site, and in their layer remains in danger. Much of the erection as part of the building. Global warming about one-quarter of the greenhouse gases.

However, these are by reduce considerably the quantities of no means the only environmental hazards pollutants entering the environment stemming directly from current urban Birkeland, Many examples of lifestyles on the planet. Other hazards energy-sensitive building designs will be include: The simplest pollution in cities. The attributed directly to the building process. It includes the the energy required to prepare and following components: Building operations affect the environment in another important manner. The extraction and processing of raw building materials has an immediate and clearly visible effect on the landscape.

The quarries for the production of aggregate for concrete, and those for brick-making clay, have a particularly devastating effect on the 2. They can remain eyesores for decades, often in the most impressive landscapes. The routes to and from such quarries can expand the devastation into surrounding areas Figure 2. Hidden from immediate view is the effect of imported materials: Monumental architecture of the past with its profligate use of resources does not act as a suitable model for Green Architecture for the twenty-first century Vale and Vale, Good urban design — monument Figures 2.

This is not a that is, the organization of public space — treatise in pursuit only of a functional results not necessarily from the design philosophy, important though that juxtaposition of great works of may be: One aim of this chapter is to discover the lessons that can be learned from the In pre-industrial society, with the exception timeless ways of building that can be found of the monumental buildings of political, in the native traditions of the vernacular. Clearly, construction work still requires a perceived need and an economic justification before it is undertaken.

This attitude permeates the construction and a development not undertaken lightly. This development industry where buildings are is still the case in the vast squatter cities of designed to meet immediate business the Developing World. This seems to requirements and are located on the most contrast markedly with conditions convenient site with easy access for the prevailing today, or in the recent past in motor car.

One of the reasons given for countries of the West such as Britain. Built- changing the current planning system is to in obsolescence appears to be a feature of help business to achieve its potential. Little seems to have been only after a detailed environmental and learned from the Canary Wharf experience, energy appraisal Figures 2. The where similar planning arrangements were reason for giving priority to conservation as made.

The use of environmental opposed to demolition and replacement is assessment limits possible damage inflicted the pursuit of policies for the efficient and on the environment from any proposed frugal use of resources, particularly energy developments: Some not to build? Existing structures embody energy inputs into the project. Nevertheless, quantities of energy capital: An existing building, however, may One principle of Green Development is: The onus for keep a worn-out structure operating.

A new proving the desirability of new development structure replacing an old building in a sustainable city would be on the disposes of energy capital on demolition and developer. Conservation in these uses energy capital for the replacement circumstances would be the natural outcome building. If the new structure is super- of a development philosophy that has insulated and is served by passive or solar sustainability as its primary goal. Numerous examples of the re-use of, refurbishment and extension of structures can be cited from the past.

In the pre- industrial city a building, however renowned, was remodelled for its new purpose without the sentiment we now attach to this process. An examination of many English parish churches, for example, reveals a mixture of many styles developed over many centuries. Old walls, details and materials were re-used, while extensions in the then latest style were woven into the existing fabric without regard to the destruction of the architectural integrity of the original building.

The result is often a fine building that is much loved and admired by succeeding generations. The most common feature of the medieval city, the dwelling, was recycled in a number of ways. Parts of a timber-frame structure from an earlier building were commonly used again when a replacement building was Figure 2. Even in that most classical of structures, the Parthenon, parts meant for an older temple were re-used in the building that presently occupies the site on the Acropolis in Athens Carpenter, The lessons that such examples teach is a respect not for the aesthetic form, although the results are often great works of architecture, but a common-sense approach to the idea of the stewardship of property and the good husbanding of scarce resources: Behind the protected shell the inner building is gutted and remodelled for its new purpose.

Such is the sentimental approach to conservation. Sadly, it would appear that Figure 2. Where can we find a better model for conservation than Stamford, where whole frontages were remodelled in the eighteenth century to make the buildings more modern but also more fireproof — an important consideration after the destruction to timber-framed buildings caused by the Great Fire of London in the previous century. Most people on this planet live in buildings made from earth Moughtin, Earth building can achieve great heights of structural and aesthetic achievement, such as the engineering feats of the Hausa people of Nigeria Figures 2.

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Earth can be used in a variety of ways which encompasses a wide range of architectural styles and aesthetic appeal Williams-Ellis et al. Earth has also been Figure 2. Building from earth does least damage to the environment: Moreover, when no longer required, the building decomposes naturally and without pollution, returning to the earth from whence it came. Amongst the Hausa people it is customary for the occupier of a hut to be buried beneath it when he or she dies.

The hut eventually collapses, forming the burial mound. Nevertheless, it can stimulate the imagination as an analogy for sustainable development. The sod or earth roof has a long history reflecting the value of soil and turf as shelter from heat, cold and rain. The earth roof still has great potential in future urban centres of the developed world where it forms valuable open space in dense developments; it can improve air quality, modify microclimate, retain rainwater and provide the base for urban agriculture Osmond, in Birkeland, It is also a Timber is another building material material eminently suited to recycling when that has served man well in the past and the building, of which it forms a part, is has been associated with great defunct.

Once its Table 2. In Medieval Britain timber was a Low-energy materials local home-grown product. Nowadays, sand, gravel 0. It would take lightweight concrete 0. Nevertheless, if Britain is to boast a cement 2.

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For a good example steel Most building materials are not as environmentally friendly as earth when construction work, low-energy materials unbaked, or timber — particularly when such as sand and gravel are used in bulk, taken from a local sustainable source. All constructions must be known if the designer is to estimate are per se damaging to the natural the total energy content of the completed environment, some more than others.

The energy content domestic buildings office buildings of materials shown in Table 2. This might building site. As we have seen with timber, suggest that the more traditional scale of the energy used in importing timber into this built form is more appropriate for the country may outweigh its advantages in sustainable city. It may be The energy content of a building material useful to examine the building traditions, is connected with the nature of the process which pre-date the industrial revolution, of refinement.

For example, the energy when we seek a green alternative to present content of earth, mud or clay is zero, while procedures: Generally, the low-energy past, but simply to assist in the difficult materials tend to be the least polluting as search for sustainable urban forms. This less energy has been used in their country has a rich and fine-grained history manufacture. It could be argued that for of vernacular or regional architecture. The purposes of achieving sustainable structures, regional architecture of Britain is deeply low-energy materials should be used in embedded in the landscape and its preference to those of high energy content.

The architectural landscape ranges with a strong proviso.