Tres Poetas Alicantinos (Spanish Edition)

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Except for those passages where I specifically indicate a published translation as the source, all translations from the Spanish are my own. Although Burgos may epitomize a social modernism and although she lived and wrote in the Spanish modernist period, she is excluded from the literary categories.

She, like every other woman writer, is rarely mentioned in studies of the period. Canonical modernism, cosmopolitan and abstract, subjectivized knowledge and eschewed the realism and domesticity often associated with women. Even in the teens and twenties, as disaffection with the monarchy increased, twentieth-century male novelists continued to dream of the Spanish past. Male authors included historical novels or novels with an important historical component in their repertoire.

Many of the male-authored novels are set in the period of the Carlist wars, when traditional values were pitted against the liberal regime of Isabel II. Could a certain nostalgia for a time when women and the underclasses played a less public role have anything to do with such historical excursions? While male nationalist theories and many male narrations look to the past, they tacitly urge a social status quo in the present. Women writers, by contrast, resisted the historical impulse and the obsession with the past, preferring to imagine a Spain struggling to modify traditional constraints.

Women chose to depict a contemporary Spain and to imagine a future in which new social configurations would be possible. Traditionally private concerns—relations between the sexes, marriage, and domestic situations—are made public. With Zambrano, the women novelists see history as a dream of the future rather than of the past.

Translation of «cirinea» into 25 languages

Zambrano wrote that one must awake every day dreaming the lucid dream, dreaming of what Spain could be. Novels by women incorporate greater class and gender consciousness than the canonical male novels of the modernist period. In fact, the notions of consciousness and self-consciousness are central to the feminist theory and characterizations embedded in virtually every female-authored novel analyzed herein.

It forces the work of art, artist, the critics, and the audience outside history. Modernism denies us the possibility of understanding ourselves as agents in the material world, for all has been removed to an abstract world of ideas, where interactions can be minimized or emptied of meaning and real consequences. In the male-authored novels, there are few modulations of social class; servants are plot motivators rather than representatives of the working classes.

Curiously, the male novelistic format becomes more picaresque a series of cobbled scenes as the picaresque monetary motive recedes in importance. If the male author and his protagonist were free to move from province to city, for the woman author such a move was more fraught with anxiety. Oddly enough, this wedding of sentiment and realism fits the fiction of female modernists much better than it fits the fiction of male modernists, which consists overwhelmingly of novels of ideas often fashioned according to the innovative narrative techniques that we associate with literary modernism.

Williams understands that relationships are a means by which a symbiosis of the personal and the social is accomplished: Realism, as embodied in its great tradition, is a touchstone in this, for it shows, in detail, that vital interpenetration, idea into feeling, person into community, change into settlement, which we need, as growing points, in our own divided time.

In the highest realism, society is seen in fundamentally personal terms, and persons, through relationships, in fundamentally social terms. Men and women relate within socially and legally prescribed boundaries that are tested often rejected or transformed in such a way that female consciousness has an opportunity to influence social norms. Both Chacel and Zambrano wrote theoretical essays that defended the confessional mode personal revelation that involves an ethical dimension.

Relationships and communication, rather than male modernist hermeticism and isolation, lie at the heart of the personal realist mode of the Spanish women writers. Zambrano gives voice to this woman who dared transgress political legal authority in order to follow an older and higher moral law dictated by family relationships and her own heart. Antigone is buried alive in us, in each one of us]. She represents hope for justice: Zambrano theorizes that only in delirium could Antigone fully understand her ethical situation. It is difficult to pinpoint the reasons for the differences between male and female modernist fiction.

As women like Chacel and Zambrano became more educated, they incorporated more modernist practices—philosophical themes, elliptical structures, and reliance on imagery to convey meaning. But not all of the more highly educated Spanish modernist- or vanguardist-era women writers engage modernist literary forms. Spanish male modernism has been understood in part as an exploration of Spain as a nation through radically new art forms. On the surface, gender appears to have been a minor concern. A concept of Spanish modernism that includes women need not forgo national and artistic matters, but it must refocus them to include considerations of gender and domesticity.

Nation, family, women, and marriage informed the canonical Spanish modernist novel as well as noncanonical fiction to a larger extent than has heretofore been acknowledged. Domestic arrangements within the body politic help define it on both a symbolic and practical level. In this regard, male authors were modernist in their critique of modernity, whereas women novelists often embraced modernity, particularly its liberalization of social roles.

Domesticity in cultural production is often associated with nineteenth-century society and literature, especially the novel, rather than with the more personal and technically innovative modernist narrative. Domesticity and the novel were particularly close allies in the era of industrialization when social roles for bourgeois women required definition and reinforcement. Nash refers specifically to the Spanish case, where the housewife and child caretaker replaced the conventual model of femininity: Most analyses of the aesthetics of not only Spanish modernism but also modernism throughout the rest of Europe would have us believe that domestic agendas were set aside in favor of philosophical and artistic agendas.

I suggest that these new concerns in no way replaced the nineteenth-century domestic purpose; rather, they were added to it with some urgency and often in a more surreptitious manner. Even if or because a domestic purpose was buried or embedded in new aesthetic forms and shrouded in philosophical debates about the nature of the Spanish nation, domestic prescriptions became subliminal and all the more pervasive. For example, marriage is a central domestic issue in novels by both male and female modernists; in fact, marriage and the family became the representational microcosm of the nation.

Fictional treatments of this central institution were, however, divided along gender lines. Male modernists appear on the surface to eschew observations on domestic arrangements, but most of their novels contain a hidden agenda related to marriage and family matters. Taken as a body of literature, the male-authored modernist novel has all the earmarks of a conservative social handbook that prescribes the most traditional domestic roles for women. Women novelists, to the contrary, engaged literature to promote a much more liberal program for their sex.

Nationalism does have a gendered dimension, according to Andrew Parker and colleagues, who note that nationalism is a normative force that adopts an ideal of masculinity: As highlighted in the chapters that follow, the clash of the discourse on the nation with the discourse on women and later with feminism provided the Spanish novel with ample material for several decades.

A second phase occupies most of the second decade, which saw a renewed postdisaster nationalism emerge with the First World War and the Moroccan campaigns carried out under the reign of Alfonso XIII. Again, nationalist propaganda drew on female imagery. Simultaneously, Spanish writers were awakening to the militant feminist movements in the Anglo-American world, and Spain itself was beginning to see a more vocal if not a more organized feminism.

From the outset, gender was inextricably linked to a developing nationalism in Spain. For the first time in many parts of Spain, national concerns began to vie with local and class identities. Spaniards of all classes and localities were encouraged to internalize images of national identity which were in reality those of the ruling oligarchy.

Before and during the war, that of a woman also representing Spain often accompanied it in cartoons and illustrations. She was, on different occasions, a matronly mother-figure and a virgin lusted after by a lecherous old Uncle Sam. Not surprisingly, men, among them prominent political figures Francisco Pi y Margall and Emilio Castelar, gave all the lectures.

He pointed out that other countries had taken important steps to give women equal rights. Although the lectures were primarily concerned with maternity and argued for separate spheres for the two sexes, they were important means of consciousness-raising. Krausist Adolfo Posada attempted to sort through the several kinds of feminism that were influencing Spanish thinking about women in order to negotiate a model that suited the situation in Spain. Posada distinguished between a radical feminism that advocated equality for the sexes in education and before the law the Anglosaxon model and a feminist radicalism with affinities to socialism and anarchism.

He preferred an interclassist nonrevolutionary type of feminism. Home and homeland were understood to go hand in hand. George Mosse finds a strong association between nationalism and respectability or traditional domesticity, which allies the nationalist movements with masculinity and rising middleclass values. Some pre—World War I Spanish novels written by both men and women deal either positively or negatively with a more independent life for women.

For Giner, true Spanish reality resided in internal history, the values and spiritual manifestations of the Spanish people. It was also very likely a haven from another modern phenomenon—the growing feminist movement. Farmworkers were offered a higher wage per hour with the expectation that they would work more hours. In fact, they worked less. Such is traditionalism in premodern societies. Eric Hobsbawm reminds us that invented traditions can serve a similar restraining purpose in modern society: Male modernist novelists often replaced the failed imperial impulse with a national tradition that they believed lay embedded in the literary classics.

It is the latter aspect of the Don Juan legend that captured the imagination of women writers who domesticated the Don Juan figure within a contemporary and very specific social milieu. In the second decade of the twentieth century, a new constellation of events welded the thinking on the Spanish nation and the thinking on women, or at least marked them as parallel discourses.

Once again gendered terms projected the nation as a colonial power: To offend the Fatherland is to offend our own mother. Burgos debuted as the first female war correspondent during the Moroccan wars, an experience that she incorporated into her novels as well as into her journalism. Even though Spain did not participate in World War I, this event gave rise as it did in the rest of Europe and in the United States to additional nationalist thinking and changed the nature and importance of the Spanish debate on women.

Augmented production demanded by the war effort also created more jobs for women. Once women were out of the home, it was a natural corollary that their feminist consciousness should blossom. Now women were demanding an equal place at the national table, and the founding of several key institutions ratified a shift in social policy concerning women.

Not surprisingly, the second decade of the twentieth century witnessed a significant increase in the publication of novels about women and novels authored by women. Journalism similarly assumed an important female dimension. On the whole, however, ANME leaned more toward the right than the left. Its political affiliations were with conservative statesmen such as Antonio Maura, Juan de la Cierva, and Eduardo Dato.

To oppose by all means within the reach of the Association every proposal, act, or manifestation that goes counter to the integrity of the national territory. To try to insure that every Spanish mother, in perfect parallel to the teacher, inculcate in the child from earliest infancy love of the mother country one and indivisible]. As the discourse on women shifted from the less controversial need to educate women although to what degree was still in dispute to a focus on a feminist platform of legal rights, enfranchisement, and divorce, the portrayal of women in fiction also shifted gears.

No longer did male novelists ally women with the eternal sea of Spanish history; they now located them in more concrete social situations. If, as I argue here, modernism can be social, then women definitely had a hand in bringing it about. Intrahistorical time is a complex concept that collapses present and past. Present historical events are but waves on the vast permanent intrahistorical sea: All that newspapers daily report, all history of the present moment, is nothing more than the surface of the sea, a surface that freezes over and crystallizes in books and registries, and once so crystallized, forms a hard layer, no more important with respect to intrahistoric life than the relation of the poor rind in which we live to the immense burning center it carries within.

Other adjectives and metaphors in this key passage similarly imbue his concept of intrahistoria with a feminine cast: As we see in a passage quoted later, Unamuno also allies farm labor with women. Unamuno was a master of insinuating metaphor here the sea image, which from ancient times has been associated with women and the maternal , and the silence typically associated with women is ubiquitous in the depictions of intrahistorical life: Sobre el silencio augusto.

One side reveals the eternal view, and the other opens a window onto specific historical situations and institutions often modern social forms that relate to women and marriage. Her earlier positions are found embedded in her novels and short stories. She does not participate in a silent, long-suffering intrahistorical sea; she is a confident individual who achieves her specific personal goals.

Not only does intrahistoria erase temporal distinctions; it telescopes spatial entities as well. Just as past and present become blurred in an eternal present, geography is telescoped, and Castile becomes a synecdoche for all Spain. Indeed, Castile exerted a fascination even among those regenerationist writers most critical of the supposed decadence of Spain.

In a similar way, the intrahistorical undercurrent lacks specificity but tends to have a vaguely female identity. El pueblo the people is an abstract concept that facilitates the erasure of geographical divisions, and it has special meanings in the Spanish context not present in other languages. In this sense, pueblo has a rural connotation.

As Francisco La Rubia Prado points out, intrahistoria minimizes external conditions: Like Unamuno, he associates the female infinite with the sea: Yo he sentido muchas veces estas tristezas indefinibles; era muchacho; en los veranos iba frecuentemente a la capital de la provincia y me sentaba largas horas en los balnearios, junto al mar. How are you going to rationalize your sadness? We do not know; but we vaguely intuit, as though we were bordering on an unknown world, that this woman has something that we do not quite understand, and that upon leaving she has taken something that belongs to us and that we will never find again.

I have often felt indefinable sadness; when I was a boy, I often went to the provincial capital, and I sat for long hours at the spas by the sea. And then I saw, and I have seen since, some of these mysterious, suggestive women, who, like the blue sea that widened before my eyes, made me think about Infinity.

Her version of domesticity, however, is more modern and does not reduce women to a vast unconscious sea. As we have seen, intrahistoria portrays rural and domestic activities as a vast sea of eternity against which specific historical events war and political actions play themselves out. For Unamuno, the domestic is closely linked to motherhood, which he considered an almost sacred state.

Castilian women, according to Unamuno, look to men for their fierceness, brutality, and courage. My opinions on these matters are the most timid, the most backward, the most bourgeois and the least innovative imaginable. I recognize it; but I have not achieved any others.

Unamuno similarly scorned nineteenth-century realism, perhaps in part because it focuses on material society rather than on abstract philosophical questions. Women are the hope of Spain: Women need to be educated in order to transmit culture to children; this is their biological function, according to Unamuno: De hacer hombres, no de parirlos; de formarles viriles, varoniles. Both male authors also privilege collective identity over individual psychology, especially where women are concerned, subordinating variety and difference to universals.

Friends from boyhood, Ignacio and Pachico reveal very different temperaments Ignacio a Carlist ideologue and Pachico an intellectual skeptic. She is left to repeat his story eternally while he achieves historical fame for his works in a contemporary political world of penury and want. Intrahistorical women are amorphous and indistinguishable from the landscape. At one point, Ignacio is attracted to a woman of the people, a blond with cow-like eyes: Don Quixote is an ambiguous modernist icon; in postromantic interpretations, which continued to influence some modernist appropriations of him, he is a victimized hero, but he also fails to perceive that the world has changed.

He is a romantic idealist doomed in a modern setting. Ignacio is eventually shot rather unheroically when, out of curiosity, he peers over the edge of his trench. His idealistic Catholic monarchism has led to nothing, while life in his home village flows on, if not uninterrupted, much as it was before. Josefa Ignacia asks nothing more of life than to die and join her son Ignacio, which she finally does.

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Josefa Ignacia is the classically silent, long-suffering Spanish woman, the epitome of perfect domesticity. Intrahistoria domestic, quotidian, and repetitive is the domain of women, whereas temporal history war, battles, victories, and defeats is the domain of men. In later novels, Unamuno shows increasing alarm at the disintegration of the traditional family when faced with new female roles that he clearly saw as weakening the harmonious substratum of Spanish society. She shared with her cogenerationists a preoccupation with Spain as a nation and for finding new aesthetic forms, but her treatment of female characters in her novels differs radically from that of the male authors.

Her publicly acknowledged authorship of an extensive fictional and dramatic corpus was, for many years, obscured by the fact that she signed her works with the name of her husband, Gregorio. She invokes both the traditional domestic woman who upholds the nation with her eternal labor as mother and homemaker and the modern woman who reads, writes, and moves independently through the world. She also wore the mask of selfless unperturbed wife of an unfaithful husband, while she discretely disclosed her anguish in letters to friends and in her novels and plays.

By converting her life into a theater, she achieves the distance necessary to gain control over her own destiny and acquire physical and psychological independence. Some of these epistolary relations provided an escape valve and a means for reflecting on her situation. She provides her protagonist with the same self-conscious mirror. For example, the denouement of the novel is narrated twice. Her ironic, humorous approach to the stock romantic scene annuls the earlier sentimental effect.

She feels herself suffer, and she watches herself suffer; and she gets the courage to laugh melancholically at her own drama from that weeping before a mirror. And there can be no sugariness in novels, comedies, life, or dream in which the heroes achieve the feat of smiling before their own tears, since the little grain of ironic salt dissolves the last trace of caramel and makes it disappear.

His father had a longtime mistress and was rather autocratic. Despite the numerous passages in both his early and later work that equated women with the eternal essence of Spain, the bibliography of his journal articles includes a number of essays on women and their social roles.

His fictional practices also fly in the face of those of women writers who, like Burgos, were publishing narratives in which female characters found alternatives to traditional marriage or in which traditional marriage was challenged. And, what a great weight they represent in your homes! Woman is everything in life! And it is the mother who must insure that the sons are good. When the modern woman everywhere has gained her rights in all human activity, it is unjust to deny it to her.

Today, I believe that women will bring to politics a little bit of the passion that we are lacking. We read the work as though perusing a two-columned page; the first column pertains to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the second to the late nineteenth century. If the soul is essence and transcendence, it is counterbalanced by the material and immanent in El alma castellana. Material life, particularly as it is associated with women, vies with the spiritual. Note that a number of these topics—the home, domestic life, fashion, and love marriage —are normally considered to be within the female realm.

Several categories that pertain less obviously to female pursuits—estates and picaresque life—also focus on women. It relates the story of a seventeenth-century gentleman who goes to the theater after dining. One of the characters in the play that he attends recounts a story from Greek history.

Seria, silenciosa, humilde y recogida, en las apariencias; levantisca y andariega, en el fondo. Do we know what she is like now? She might seem silent, humble, and modest by all appearances; restless and gadding about underneath. When she loves, she loves with ardent passion; when she is humiliated, she takes revenge. Assuming that she will want more details, the author obligingly continues with a long list of items of apparel. El lujo toma vuelos. Excessively large skirts hid the fruit of illicit love affairs, so that young women no longer feared the consequences of immoral behavior.

Military men were becoming alarmingly effeminate: Lo que yo veo es mariones [sic], que hurtan los usos a las mujeres: I see men converted into women, converted from strong to effeminate, full of airs, long hair and pompadours, and perhaps even cosmetics and silliness that women use. And considering the fact that yesterday you cursed the foreigners who entered Spain with long hair and smelling bad, now you do the same and want to smell good?

Lovely soldiers for an important predicament! A scandal ensues, and she vows to avenge herself, which she does by nailing the tongue, nose, ears, and hands of the perpetrator of her dishonor on her door with a note declaring that she was the author of the horrific revenge. Subsequently, she dresses as a soldier and joins the army. Her female identity goes undetected, except by the narrator of the story, who recognizes her as she plays dice one day.

Cross-gendering and cross-dressing became more prevalent and assumed different meanings in novels that appeared in the second and third decades, for example. She employs them not so much to underline national weaknesses but to explore human emotion and possibly to satirize the national concern with the feminization of a traditional masculine culture.

APOLONIDA - Definition and synonyms of apolonida in the Spanish dictionary

She also points out that when the women took action to acquire such necessities as food, the implication was that the masculine culture was not adequately caring for its women and children. Tula is a thoroughly modern woman—a Latin American Creole, separated from her husband and living alone in Paris. She smokes and engages in the masculine sports of shooting and dueling.

All in that woman sang the diabolic power of her triumphant beauty]. Prostitution—sex outside of legitimate marriage—gathers metaphorical status as the book progresses; the chapter on love in the eighteenth century is devoted to the custom of the cortejo cortege. La primera invita a la segunda a ocupar su vis-a-vis y dar un paseo.

Es menester reir a boca llena. In El tocador o el libro a la moda, catechism of good taste, the author invents a conversation between two ladies, one a refined courtesan, the other a frank provincial woman.

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And the woman from Madrid, astonished, surprised, completely taken aback, exclaims: I have to laugh with an open mouth. Marriage is central to overcoming lax morality: If El alma castellana has recourse to Spanish history to insinuate covert messages about the roles that are inappropriate for women, Castilla, which appeared twelve years later, invokes Spanish classical literature to emphasize the proper role for women: Calisto was twenty-three at the time.

He is a man of means who encompasses all the virtues that we associate with an enterprising bourgeois gentleman: She is tall, with a dark, aquiline face. He ends up a lonely old man after his inappropriately chosen wife has abandoned him. As the ensuing chapters demonstrate, the soul of Spain became identified by both male and female authors with specific classic Spanish literary figures, especially Don Quixote and Don Juan.

What present-day Spaniards lacked was the rich experience of the Golden Age adventurers, whose activity extended to Flanders, Italy, and the Americas; modern Spain had not found replacements for these energetic exploits. Both male and female writers invoked Don Quixote, although to different purposes.

His tactic in the face of such baffling female diversity was to transform the women he met in his travels into characters from chivalric or pastoral romances through sheer force of his powerful imagination the rough peasant Aldonza Lorenzo, for example, becomes the rare beauty Dulcinea del Toboso. It buried them in a false atmosphere of lyrical praise: Many of the protagonists of male-authored Spanish modernist novels are hopeless idealists of the quixotic type, tilting against the windmills of crass reality.

Although their approach to life usually yields unfortunate results, like Quixote, the characters are vindicated in their idealism within a cruel, materialistic world a materialism often perpetrated by women and marriage. In the end, like Quixote, he accepts the realities of modern life; in fact, Ossorio goes Quixote one better by surrendering to bourgeois marriage. After the women have fulfilled their supporting role, they die or are otherwise eliminated. Recall that Unamuno himself recognized—even boasted—that his female characters move silently through his novels like shadows.

It is always right and he wrong. In other words, the authorial position in the novel is not absolute: In fact, by emphasizing the dichotomy between a personal vision of reality and a reality accepted by the majority of the characters, the possibilities for social criticism that the novel had begun to develop in the picaresque genre diminish concomitantly.

Unlike Cervantes and his modern disciples, these women writers do not maintain the posture of moral relativity that Auerbach notes in the Quixote, and they find a variety of narrative means to render biting criticism of such diverse aspects of contemporary society as the legal status of women, marriage, and prostitution. I was traveling by train through the countryside of New Castile and entered La Mancha. Her novels similarly meld idealism and materialism in a way that allows the practical to prevail without completely divesting itself of an idealistic dimension.

Not surprisingly, his experiences in the classic Spanish villages prompted him to continue his meditation on the essence of the Spanish soul and the nature of time and history that he had begun in El alma castellana. Here, however, he concentrates more on the national character with fewer hidden messages about gender roles. Both men and women melt into essential Spain. Could one not find here in these villages the intimate, tacit agreement of wills and intelligences that makes the solid and lasting prosperity of a nation?

On two occasions, the niece is instrumental in having Don Quixote brought home from his knightly adventures, and on his return she attempts to reinscribe him in the domestic order. She is a weight, an anchor that sinks men and thus the nation to the lowest possible level. It would now appear that the kind of domesticity that Unamuno favored in Paz en la guerra is anathema to male ontology and thus to a nation sorely in need of heroes. For example, Unamuno interprets the prostitutes at an inn as mothers virgin mothers, at that to the Don Quixote child: At first, the reader experiences anger toward Cervantes and other characters for their heartless treatment of Don Quixote, especially their robbing him of his insanity, his special vision of the world.

Espina contributed the following blurb to an edition of La vida de don Quijote y Sancho for which the editor had requested comments from other writers: From his high place, he has sewn ideals and definitions of manliness in Spanish art and life that many appropriate, imitating him without achieving the height of his purpose. Espina herself had emerged from traditional female roles to assume a more modern independent life.

Finally tiring of her role as a closet breadwinner, she returned to Spain, separated from her husband, and supported herself and her three children by the pen. Although she has fallen out of the Spanish modernist canon, her novels were hugely popular at the time of their publication. In the early pages of Las mujeres del Quijote, Espina gently critiques Cervantes for not creating more realistic women: She excuses him, however, by observing that he had not had the opportunity to know as many illustrious women as he had outstanding men.

In each novel, the Quixote intertext provides a framework within which the authors inscribed ideas about gender roles and domestic arrangements in early twentieth-century Spain. Augusto has fallen in love with Eugenia after absentmindedly following her in the street one day, and the remainder of the novel narrates his courtship of her. Eugenia is a modern, independent woman who works as a piano teacher to pay off the mortgage on her family home, a debt her father incurred before he committed suicide. He thus links her to the sociopolitical movements of the day: Of course, not in vain has she been hearing me lecture day after day about the future society and the woman of the future; not in vain have I inculcated in her the emancipating doctrines of anarchism Eugenia writes Augusto a farewell letter that ends with a particularly insidious reference to the laundry girl Augusto had briefly considered for a sexual dalliance: No viene con nosotros Rosario.

It is the ridicule, the ridicule, the ridicule! It is difficult not to perceive the unnecessary detail of the letter as an attempt to portray the woman who refuses traditional bourgeois marriage Mauricio is a gigolo as a threat to honorable men and stable social order. Augusto, a modern Quixote, faces even more treacherous circumstances—a woman who, instead of bringing him home to hearth and a comfortable deathbed, cruelly drives him to despair and self-destruction.

He even foolishly believes that the modern, independent woman would be his salvation. As the years passed, they became accustomed to their childless life and even came to prefer it. Female characters free themselves from the male imagination and seize control of their own destinies. Both Las cerezas del cementerio and La esfinge maragata contrast modern, urban Spain with the rural traditional nation. Both novels begin with a young man of romantic-poetic sensibility who is traveling by a modern mode of transportation. Both of these journeys from the city to the country are framed to contrast modernity and Spanish traditionalism.

When Rogelio sees the sleeping Florinda on the overnight train, his imagination transforms her into Sleeping Beauty. In each novel, the trip takes the principal characters through a provincial city on the way to a remote rural location of a particular region Alicante and Maragata. Espina, in contrast, breaks radically with the Cervantine tradition: His wife was the daughter of the French consul in Alicante, and therefore we know that he sustained contact with at least one woman of some reading and culture.

Las cerezas del cementerio is a classic modernist novel in its layering of literary references to reveal a view of the modern Spanish nation. Beatriz, on what we might call the first level of reality, is a beautiful woman in her thirties whose father married her off to an English businessman to further his own commercial interests. Beatriz and the boorish Englishman have lived separate lives for a number of years. Since prehistoric times, the moon and the sea have allegorized the female element, especially its fertility functions. Beatriz is the great mother, the virginal Dantesque muse, and a destructive Eve the garden setting in the rural agricultural region of Alicante and the ritual eating of forbidden fruit—the cherries that grow in the cemetery—make the parallel to the Garden of Eden unmistakable.

Not only is womanhood of a whole cloth—the eternally divine and damned virgin and whore—she ensnares the male in a cycle of sacrifice and suffering. As an engineering student, he represents an attempt to introduce European modernity into Spain, but his modernity is crushed when he returns full of idyllic illusions to a traditional, rural sector of his country. If women are not directly responsible for his tragic demise, they remain as the eternal earth mothers who take their sustenance from him. She effects this sympathy through a female protagonist whose subjectivity governs much of the narrative.

By contrast, from the beginning of La esfinge maragata, Florinda or Mariflor, as she is known in the village of Valdecruces displays the same imaginative powers as Rogelio. She becomes the central consciousness that guides the narration after she leaves Rogelio on the train to undertake the journey to Valdecruces by horseback. She tells Rogelio that the man her family has designated as her husband, a cousin who owns a grocery store, is not her ideal. She would prefer a sailor: Upon hearing this new, unusual utterance, Marinela, to whom it alluded, took the traveler for a heretic or a madman.

Mariflor follows the romantic model of a woman who waits for the man she loves in spite of numerous obstacles, chief among them pressure from her family to accept the offer of marriage from a wealthy cousin. Mariflor initiates the association between Rogelio and Don Quixote when she imagines him as the white knight who will save her from the harsh life that she has entered in Valdecruces. She dreams that Rogelio will whisk her away from her dreary impoverished situation: Rogelio arrives on horseback clothed in dandyish fashion, prophesying his unsuitability as a savior of distressed damsels in the forsaken village of Valdecruces: Indeed, his first impression of the village is filled with dismay: Perhaps he cannot change the harsh Maragatan landscape, but he can still hope to liberate the impoverished women trapped there: She intensifies her work on behalf of her family, pawning her personal possessions and seeking charity to pay household expenses.

She also decides to marry her cousin, who in his own rough-hewn way loves her more than does Rogelio. Presumably, the agricultural relatives will have learned a lesson about sound business practices from this recent brush with destitution. Significantly, Mariflor, having left her quixotic illusions behind, will move to the city after her marriage.

In the Valdecruces world inhabited almost entirely by women, Florinda encounters a natural paradigm that contrasts with the idyllic model of the romance; instead of a union with an idealized male who idealizes her in return, she is offered the opportunity to establish genuine ties with her female relatives, especially through her cousin Olalla.

Olalla, who is capable of deep emotional ties and an unflagging constancy, speaks through her physical presence. Unlike the tenuous verbal understanding between Rogelio and Florinda, the pact between Olalla and Florinda is sealed with a physical sign: When, at the end of the novel, Florinda, now Mariflor, announces that she will marry her wealthy cousin, the doves come to feed from her lap: Share your thoughts with other customers. Write a customer review.

Meaning of "cirinea" in the Spanish dictionary

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