Sprachen und Dialekte in Frankreich (German Edition)

They take their names from the historic Basque provinces, but the dialect boundaries are not congruent with province boundaries. Euskara Batua was created so that Basque language could be used—and easily understood by all Basque speakers—in formal situations education, mass media, literature , and this is its main use today. In both Spain and France, the use of Basque for education varies from region to region and from school to school. A language isolate, Basque is believed to be one of the few surviving pre-Indo-European languages in Europe, and is the only one in Western Europe.

The origin of the Basques and of their languages is not conclusively known, though the most accepted current theory is that early forms of Basque developed before the arrival of Indo-European languages in the area, including the Romance languages that geographically surround the Basque-speaking region.

Basque has adopted a good deal of its vocabulary from the Romance languages, and Basque speakers have in turn lent their own words to Romance speakers. The Basque alphabet uses the Latin script. In Basque, the name of the language is officially Euskara alongside various dialect forms.

In French, the language is normally called basque , though in recent times euskara has become common. Spanish has a greater variety of names for the language. Today, it is most commonly referred to as el vasco , la lengua vasca , or el euskera. Basque is geographically surrounded by Romance languages but is a language isolate unrelated to them, and indeed, to any other language in the world. It is the last remaining descendant of one of the pre-Indo-European languages of Western Europe, the others being extinct outright. Little is known of its origins, but an early form of the Basque language likely was present in Western Europe before the arrival of the Indo-European languages to the area.

Authors such as Miguel de Unamuno and Louis Lucien Bonaparte have noted that the words for "knife" aizto , "axe" aizkora , and "hoe" aitzur derive from the word for "stone" haitz , and have therefore concluded that the language dates to prehistoric Europe when those tools were made of stone. Latin inscriptions in Gallia Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in the reconstructed proto-Basque language , for instance, the personal names Nescato and Cison neskato and gizon mean "young girl" and "man", respectively in modern Basque. This language is generally referred to as Aquitanian and is assumed to have been spoken in the area before the Roman Republic 's conquests in the western Pyrenees.

Some authors even argue for late Basquisation , that the language moved westward during Late Antiquity after the fall of the Western Roman Empire into the northern part of Hispania into what is now Basque Country.

Roman neglect of this area allowed Aquitanian to survive while the Iberian and Tartessian languages became extinct. Through the long contact with Romance languages, Basque adopted a sizable number of Romance words. Initially the source was Latin, later Gascon a branch of Occitan in the northeast, Navarro-Aragonese in the southeast and Spanish in the southwest. The statistical improbability and chronological difficulty of linking Basque with its Indo-European neighbors in Europe has inspired many scholars to search for its possible relatives elsewhere. Besides many pseudoscientific comparisons , the appearance of long-range linguistics gave rise to several attempts to connect Basque with geographically very distant language families.

Almost all hypotheses concerning the origin of Basque are controversial, and the suggested evidence is not generally accepted by most linguists. Some of these hypothetical connections are:. The region where Basque is spoken has become smaller over centuries, especially at the northern, southern, and eastern borders. Nothing is known about the limits of this region in ancient times, but on the basis of toponyms and epigraphs, it seems that in the beginning of the Common Era it stretched to the river Garonne in the north including the southwestern part of present-day France ; at least to the Val d'Aran in the east now a Gascon -speaking part of Catalonia , including lands on both sides of the Pyrenees ; [20] the southern and western boundaries are not clear at all.

The Reconquista temporarily counteracted this contracting tendency when the Christian lords called on Northern Iberian peoples—Basques, Asturians , and " Franks "—to colonise the new conquests. The Basque language became the main everyday language, [ where? In the 20th century, however, the rise of Basque nationalism spurred increased interest in the language as a sign of ethnic identity, and with the establishment of autonomous governments in the Southern Basque Country , it has recently made a modest comeback.

In the Spanish part, Basque-language schools for children and Basque-teaching centres for adults have brought the language to areas such as Enkarterri and the Ribera d'Ebre in Navarre, where it is not known if it has ever been spoken before; and in the French Basque Country, these schools and centres have almost stopped the decline of the language. Historically, Latin or Romance languages have been the official languages in this region.

However, Basque was explicitly recognised in some areas. For instance, the fuero or charter of the Basque-colonised Ojacastro now in La Rioja allowed the inhabitants to use Basque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries. The Spanish Constitution of states in Article 3 that the Spanish language is the official language of the nation, but allows autonomous communities to provide a co-official language status for the other languages of Spain. The Statute of Navarre establishes Spanish as the official language of Navarre, but grants co-official status to the Basque language in the Basque-speaking areas of northern Navarre.

Basque has no official status in the French Basque Country and French citizens are barred from officially using Basque in a French court of law.

However, the use of Basque by Spanish nationals in French courts is permitted with translation , as Basque is officially recognised on the other side of the border. The positions of the various existing governments differ with regard to the promotion of Basque in areas where Basque is commonly spoken. The language has official status in those territories that are within the Basque Autonomous Community, where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre. The Ley del Vascuence "Law of Basque" , seen as contentious by many Basques, but considered fitting Navarra's linguistic and cultural diversity by some of the main political parties of Navarre, [24] divides Navarre into three language areas: Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed.

Support for the language and the linguistic rights of citizens vary, depending on the area. Others consider it unfair, since the rights of Basque speakers differ greatly depending on the place they live. The sociolinguistic survey of all Basque-speaking territories showed that in , of all people aged 16 and above: Taken together, in , of a total population of 2,, 1,, in the Autonomous Community, , in the Northern Provinces and , in Navarre , , spoke Basque aged 16 and above. This amounts to Compared to the figures, this represents an overall increase of ,, from , from a population of 2,, 15 years previously.

Basque is used as a language of commerce both in the Basque Country and in locations around the world where Basques immigrated throughout history.

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The modern Basque dialects show a high degree of dialectal divergence, sometimes making cross-dialect communication difficult. This is especially true in the case of Biscayan and Souletin, which are regarded as the most divergent Basque dialects. Modern Basque dialectology distinguishes five dialects: These dialects are divided in 11 subdialects, and 24 minor varieties among them. According to Koldo Zuazo , [30] the Biscayan dialect or "Western" is the most widespread dialect, with around , speakers out of a total of around , speakers.

This dialect is divided in two minor subdialects: Although the influence of the neighbouring Romance languages on the Basque language especially the lexicon, but also to some degree Basque phonology and grammar has been much more extensive, it is usually assumed that there has been some feedback from Basque into these languages as well. In particular Gascon and Aragonese , and to a lesser degree Spanish are thought to have received this influence in the past.

In the case of Aragonese and Gascon, this would have been through substrate interference following language shift from Aquitanian or Basque to a Romance language, affecting all levels of the language, including place names around the Pyrenees. Although a number of words of alleged Basque origin in the Spanish language are circulated e. The first two features are common, widespread developments in many Romance and non-Romance languages.

As a result, although many arguments have been made on both sides, the debate largely comes down to the a priori tendency on the part of particular linguists to accept or reject substrate arguments. Examples of arguments against the substrate theory, [7] and possible responses:. Part of the Romani community in the Basque Country speaks Erromintxela , which is a rare mixed language , with a Kalderash Romani vocabulary and Basque grammar.

A number of Basque-based or Basque-influenced pidgins have existed. In the 16th century, Basque sailors used a Basque—Icelandic pidgin in their contacts with Iceland. Basque is an ergative—absolutive language. The subject of an intransitive verb is in the absolutive case which is unmarked , and the same case is used for the direct object of a transitive verb. The subject of the transitive verb is marked differently, with the ergative case shown by the suffix -k.

This also triggers main and auxiliary verbal agreement. The auxiliary verb , which accompanies most main verbs, agrees not only with the subject, but with any direct object and the indirect object present. Among European languages, this polypersonal agreement is found only in Basque, some languages of the Caucasus , Mordvinic languages , Hungarian , and Maltese all non-Indo-European. The ergative—absolutive alignment is also rare among European languages—occurring only in some languages of the Caucasus—but not infrequent worldwide. Martin-ek is the agent transitive subject , so it is marked with the ergative case ending -k with an epenthetic -e-.

Egunkariak has an -ak ending, which marks plural object plural absolutive, direct object case. Der Gebrauch des Bretonischen an den Schulen wurde schlichtweg verboten.

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Sie identifizieren sich heute mehr denn je mit ihrer Sprache und Kultur. Heb brezoneg, Breiz ebet - ohne das Bretonische keine Bretagne. Jahrhundert, als sich die Angeln und Sachsen auf den britischen Inseln ausbreiteten. In der Literatur gibt es inzwischen einige Klassiker, die ihre Werke in Bretonisch verfassen: Es handelt sich um eine der wenigen in Europa erhaltenen vorindogermanischen Sprachen.



Von den rund Das Wappen des Baskenlands Quelle: Die Regionalismusbewegung der Basken konzentriert sich in erster Linie auf den spanischen Teil des Baskenlandes [ 12 ]. Bis in das Jahrhundert war das Katalanische eine lebendige Schriftsprache. Von den rund 5,5 Mio. Upper German proper can be generally classified as Alemannic or Bavarian.

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However, the High Franconian dialects, spoken up to the Speyer line isogloss in the north, are also considered part of the larger Upper German dialect group. Whether they should be included as part of Upper German or instead classified as Central German is an open question, as they have traits of both Upper and Central German and are frequently described as a transitional zone. Hence, either scheme can be encountered. Erzgebirgisch , usually lumped in with Upper Saxon on geographical grounds, is closer to East Franconian linguistically, especially the western dialects of Erzgebirgisch.

Based on the fact that Langobardic , extinct around , has undergone the High German consonant shift completely, it is also often classified as Upper German. On the other hand, if Langobardic was still essentially identical to Bavarian or Alemannic at the time, the anachronism would disappear, and in fact, what is attested in Langobardic cannot really be shown to be systematically different in any particular point from the earliest attested form of Bavarian in the 8th century, apart from a few rather minor divergent phonological developments, which, however, seem to postdate the sound shift.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Not to be confused with Standard German. This article does not cite any sources.